4.8 End of the frontier
8 min read•august 21, 2024
The in 1890 marked a turning point for Native Americans. It signaled the end of traditional ways of life and ushered in an era of confinement and forced assimilation. This shift profoundly impacted Native societies, leading to massive land loss and cultural disruption.
The frontier's closure coincided with the implementation of the and assimilation policies. These changes aimed to "civilize" Native Americans through Western education and agriculture, but often resulted in poverty, cultural loss, and increased dependency on the U.S. government.
Closing of the frontier
- Marks a significant turning point in Native American history as the United States declared the frontier "closed" in 1890
- Represents the end of traditional Native American ways of life and the beginning of a new era of confinement and assimilation
- Profoundly impacted Native American societies, leading to loss of land, resources, and cultural autonomy
Turner's frontier thesis
Top images from around the web for Turner's frontier thesis
File:Native American Chiefs 1865.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original
Is this image relevant?
Turner, Mahan, and the Roots of Empire | US History II (OS Collection) View original
Is this image relevant?
Turner, Mahan, and the Roots of Empire | US History II (OS Collection) View original
Is this image relevant?
File:Native American Chiefs 1865.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original
Is this image relevant?
Turner, Mahan, and the Roots of Empire | US History II (OS Collection) View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Turner's frontier thesis
File:Native American Chiefs 1865.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original
Is this image relevant?
Turner, Mahan, and the Roots of Empire | US History II (OS Collection) View original
Is this image relevant?
Turner, Mahan, and the Roots of Empire | US History II (OS Collection) View original
Is this image relevant?
File:Native American Chiefs 1865.jpg - Wikimedia Commons View original
Is this image relevant?
Turner, Mahan, and the Roots of Empire | US History II (OS Collection) View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- Developed by historian Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893
- Argued that the frontier experience shaped American democracy and national character
- Emphasized the importance of free land in fostering individualism and democracy
- Largely ignored the perspective and experiences of Native Americans
- Influenced American historiography and popular understanding of westward expansion for decades
Impact on Native Americans
- Resulted in massive loss of ancestral lands and territories
- Disrupted traditional hunting grounds and food sources
- Forced many tribes to adopt new lifestyles and economic practices
- Led to widespread poverty, malnutrition, and disease among Native populations
- Caused cultural dislocation and loss of traditional knowledge and practices
Reservation system establishment
- Implemented as a means of confining Native Americans to specific areas
- Aimed to "civilize" Native Americans through agriculture and Western education
- Often located on less desirable lands with limited resources
- Restricted movement and traditional nomadic lifestyles of many tribes
- Created and services
- Facilitated increased federal control over Native American affairs
Westward expansion
Manifest Destiny ideology
- Belief in America's divine right and duty to expand across the continent
- Justified the displacement and conquest of Native American lands
- Promoted the idea of "civilizing" Native Americans through assimilation
- Influenced government policies and public opinion regarding westward expansion
- Resulted in numerous conflicts and wars with Native American tribes
Native displacement and relocation
- Forced removal of tribes from ancestral lands to make way for white settlers
- Implemented through a series of treaties, often under duress or deception
- Resulted in long, arduous journeys (Trail of Tears) with high mortality rates
- Disrupted traditional social structures and economic systems of Native tribes
- Led to the concentration of diverse tribes on smaller, unfamiliar territories
Conflicts with settlers
- Arose from competing land claims and cultural misunderstandings
- Included both small-scale skirmishes and large-scale wars
- Often resulted in disproportionate violence against Native American communities
- Led to the destruction of Native villages and food sources
- Fueled negative stereotypes and prejudices against Native Americans
- Culminated in military campaigns aimed at subduing Native resistance
Native resistance movements
Ghost Dance religion
- Spiritual movement that emerged in the late 19th century
- Founded by Wovoka, a Paiute spiritual leader
- Promised the return of ancestral lands and the disappearance of white settlers
- Spread rapidly among various tribes, offering hope in the face of despair
- Viewed with suspicion and fear by U.S. authorities
- Contributed to increased tensions between Native Americans and the government
Wounded Knee massacre
- Occurred on December 29, 1890, in South Dakota
- Resulted in the deaths of hundreds of Lakota men, women, and children
- Stemmed from attempts to suppress the Ghost Dance movement
- Marked the end of organized Native American resistance to U.S. expansion
- Symbolized the brutality of the U.S. government's policies towards Native Americans
- Continues to be a source of trauma and remembrance for Native communities
Last Indian wars
- Series of conflicts between Native American tribes and the U.S. government
- Included the Nez Perce War (1877) and the Bannock War (1878)
- Often resulted from broken treaties and encroachment on Native lands
- Demonstrated the determination of some tribes to resist forced relocation
- Ended with the defeat and subjugation of Native American forces
- Led to the confinement of most remaining free tribes to reservations
Assimilation policies
Dawes Act of 1887
- Also known as the General Allotment Act
- Aimed to break up tribal lands and promote individual land ownership
- Allocated parcels of land to individual Native Americans
- Required Native Americans to adopt "civilized" practices to receive citizenship
- Resulted in massive loss of Native American land holdings
- Undermined traditional tribal governance and communal land use practices
Allotment system effects
- Reduced Native American land holdings from 138 million acres to 48 million acres
- Fragmented tribal communities and weakened traditional social structures
- Created a class of landless Native Americans dependent on wage labor
- Led to the loss of prime agricultural lands to non-Native settlers
- Contributed to increased poverty and economic instability among Native Americans
- Facilitated the erosion of traditional knowledge related to land management
Cultural suppression efforts
- Implemented through boarding schools and missionary activities
- Aimed to eradicate Native languages, religions, and cultural practices
- Forced Native children to attend off-reservation schools
- Prohibited the practice of traditional ceremonies and rituals
- Enforced Western dress codes and hairstyles
- Resulted in intergenerational trauma and loss of cultural identity
Economic changes
Buffalo extinction consequences
- Devastated the primary food source for many Plains tribes
- Disrupted traditional hunting practices and economic systems
- Forced tribes to become dependent on government rations
- Led to widespread malnutrition and health problems
- Contributed to the loss of traditional skills and knowledge
- Facilitated the transition to a reservation-based lifestyle
Transition to agriculture
- Promoted by the U.S. government as part of the "civilizing" process
- Required significant changes in lifestyle and social organization
- Often involved unfamiliar crops and farming techniques
- Faced challenges due to poor soil quality on many reservations
- Led to mixed results, with some tribes adapting more successfully than others
- Contributed to the erosion of traditional gender roles in many tribes
Dependency on government rations
- Resulted from loss of traditional food sources and limited economic opportunities
- Created a cycle of poverty and reliance on federal assistance
- Often involved low-quality or culturally inappropriate foods
- Led to health problems such as diabetes and obesity
- Undermined traditional food systems and nutritional practices
- Served as a means of control and leverage for the U.S. government
Legal and political developments
Treaty system breakdown
- Marked by increasing disregard for previously negotiated agreements
- Resulted in unilateral actions by the U.S. government to acquire Native lands
- Led to loss of trust and increased tensions between tribes and the government
- Contributed to the erosion of tribal sovereignty and self-governance
- Paved the way for more direct federal control over Native American affairs
- Highlighted the power imbalance between Native tribes and the U.S. government
Indian Appropriations Act 1871
- Ended the practice of treating Native American tribes as independent nations
- Declared all Native Americans to be wards of the federal government
- Eliminated the need for Senate ratification of treaties with Native tribes
- Increased congressional and executive control over Native American policy
- Facilitated the implementation of assimilation policies
- Marked a significant shift in the legal status of Native American tribes
Citizenship and voting rights
- Granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans through the
- Did not automatically confer voting rights, which varied by state
- Some states continued to deny Native Americans the right to vote until the 1960s
- Raised questions about the relationship between tribal and U.S. citizenship
- Led to increased Native American participation in U.S. politics and governance
- Contributed to the development of pan-Indian political movements
Cultural preservation efforts
Native American education
- Shifted from assimilationist boarding schools to more culturally sensitive approaches
- Included the establishment of tribal colleges and universities
- Focused on preserving Native languages and cultural knowledge
- Incorporated traditional teachings and practices into curriculum
- Aimed to address historical trauma and promote cultural pride
- Faced challenges of limited funding and resources
Language retention strategies
- Developed immersion programs to teach endangered Native languages
- Created language nests for young children to learn from fluent speakers
- Utilized technology (apps, online resources) to support language learning
- Established language documentation projects to preserve vocabulary and grammar
- Integrated Native languages into public school curricula in some areas
- Faced challenges of declining numbers of fluent speakers and limited resources
Traditional practices continuation
- Involved efforts to maintain and revive ceremonial and spiritual practices
- Included the preservation and teaching of traditional arts and crafts
- Focused on maintaining connection to ancestral lands and sacred sites
- Incorporated traditional ecological knowledge into land management practices
- Faced challenges from legal restrictions and loss of access to traditional territories
- Adapted practices to modern contexts while maintaining core cultural values
Legacy of frontier closure
Reservation life challenges
- Included high rates of poverty, unemployment, and health disparities
- Faced issues of inadequate housing, education, and healthcare facilities
- Struggled with limited economic opportunities and geographic isolation
- Dealt with environmental degradation and resource exploitation
- Confronted ongoing jurisdictional conflicts with state and federal authorities
- Worked to balance traditional governance with imposed bureaucratic structures
Urban migration trends
- Began in earnest during the mid-20th century, often encouraged by government relocation programs
- Led to the formation of urban Native American communities in major cities
- Created challenges of cultural preservation and community cohesion in urban settings
- Resulted in new forms of pan-Indian identity and activism
- Faced issues of discrimination, poverty, and cultural dislocation in urban areas
- Contributed to the development of urban Native organizations and cultural centers
Modern Native American identity
- Evolved to encompass diverse experiences of reservation, rural, and urban life
- Embraced a resurgence of cultural pride and traditional practices
- Navigated complex issues of tribal enrollment and blood quantum requirements
- Addressed challenges of cultural appropriation and stereotyping in mainstream society
- Developed new forms of artistic and cultural expression blending traditional and contemporary elements
- Engaged in ongoing efforts to assert tribal sovereignty and self-determination
Key Terms to Review (23)
Allotment System Effects: The allotment system effects refer to the consequences of a policy enacted in the late 19th century that aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting individual plots of land to families instead of communal tribal holdings. This policy significantly disrupted traditional communal living, led to the loss of tribal land, and altered economic and social structures within Native American communities. The implementation of this system marked a critical phase in the transformation of Native American life as it coincided with the end of the frontier and intensified pressures on indigenous populations.
Buffalo extinction consequences: The buffalo extinction consequences refer to the widespread ecological, cultural, and economic impacts following the near annihilation of the American bison population in the late 19th century. This decline not only disrupted the ecological balance of the Great Plains but also severely affected Native American communities who relied on buffalo for food, shelter, and cultural practices. The loss of this keystone species marked a significant transition in the dynamics of the American frontier, influencing settlement patterns and agricultural development.
Closing of the frontier: The closing of the frontier refers to the historical moment in the late 19th century when the American frontier, defined as the advancing line of settlement and development into previously unoccupied land, was declared effectively closed. This transition marked a significant shift in American society and culture, as it signaled the end of an era characterized by westward expansion, the displacement of Native American tribes, and the belief in Manifest Destiny. The closure brought about new challenges for the United States, influencing economic policies, immigration patterns, and social dynamics.
Cultural suppression efforts: Cultural suppression efforts refer to the systematic actions taken by dominant groups or governments to undermine, erase, or assimilate minority cultures and practices. These efforts often involve the prohibition of languages, traditions, religious practices, and other cultural expressions, aimed at promoting a singular national identity that marginalizes diverse cultural backgrounds. As societies transformed, especially during significant transitions like the end of the frontier, these efforts were instrumental in shaping the cultural landscape of indigenous populations and other minority groups.
Dawes Act of 1887: The Dawes Act of 1887 was a U.S. law that aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting individual plots of land to families, while redistributing the remaining tribal land to white settlers. This act was significant as it marked a shift from communal land ownership among Native American tribes to individual ownership, leading to significant loss of tribal land and identity, and played a crucial role in the broader narrative of the end of the frontier.
Dependency on government rations: Dependency on government rations refers to the reliance of Native American communities on food and supplies provided by the federal government, often as a result of policies that restricted their traditional ways of life. This reliance was exacerbated by the displacement of tribes from their ancestral lands and the imposition of treaties that frequently left them without adequate means to sustain themselves. As the frontier era came to a close, this dependency became a defining feature of many Native communities, influencing their social, economic, and cultural landscapes.
Ghost Dance Religion: The Ghost Dance Religion was a spiritual movement among Native Americans in the late 19th century that aimed to restore their traditional way of life and bring about the return of deceased ancestors. It emerged as a response to the oppression and cultural loss faced by Native peoples following westward expansion and the end of the frontier. The movement promoted a vision of unity among tribes and the hope for a future where Native Americans could reclaim their lands and cultures.
Indian Appropriations Act 1871: The Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 was a U.S. federal law that aimed to regulate the relationship between the federal government and Native American tribes, marking a significant shift in policy by ending the recognition of tribes as sovereign nations. This act symbolized the broader movement towards assimilation and the dismantling of tribal autonomy as the frontier era was coming to an end, further embedding Native Americans within a framework that prioritized their integration into American society.
Indian Citizenship Act of 1924: The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born in the United States. This landmark legislation aimed to recognize Native Americans as citizens, which was a significant step toward inclusion and rights, though it did not automatically guarantee them voting rights or full participation in society. The act reflects the changing dynamics of alliances and relationships between the U.S. government and Native American tribes during this period.
Language retention strategies: Language retention strategies are methods and practices aimed at preserving and promoting the use of a language, particularly among communities at risk of language loss. These strategies can involve educational programs, community initiatives, and cultural practices that encourage the intergenerational transmission of language and foster a sense of identity and belonging within the community.
Last Indian Wars: The Last Indian Wars refer to a series of conflicts between Native American tribes and the United States government during the late 19th century, particularly from the 1860s to the 1890s. These wars mark the final stages of resistance against U.S. expansion and settler encroachment on Native lands, leading to significant changes in Native American life and culture, as well as the eventual end of the frontier era.
Manifest Destiny: Manifest Destiny is the 19th-century doctrine that the expansion of the United States across the American continent was both justified and inevitable. This belief was rooted in a sense of American exceptionalism and a perceived divine right to spread democracy and capitalism, deeply impacting Native American communities and shaping U.S. policy and actions towards them.
Modern native american identity: Modern Native American identity refers to the evolving sense of self and cultural identity among Indigenous peoples in contemporary society, shaped by historical experiences, political movements, and social changes. It encompasses a blend of traditional cultural practices and modern influences, emphasizing resilience, activism, and the reclamation of Indigenous heritage in a post-colonial context.
Native American education: Native American education refers to the various systems and practices through which Indigenous peoples in North America impart knowledge, values, and cultural traditions to their children. This education encompasses both traditional forms, rooted in community and family, as well as modern schooling systems influenced by colonial policies and cultural assimilation efforts, particularly significant during the end of the frontier period.
Native displacement: Native displacement refers to the forced removal of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral lands, often resulting from colonization, expansionist policies, and economic pressures. This phenomenon led to significant cultural, social, and economic upheaval for Native communities, as they were stripped of their territories and traditional ways of life.
Reservation life challenges: Reservation life challenges refer to the various socio-economic, cultural, and political difficulties faced by Native American communities living on reservations. These challenges include limited access to education, healthcare, employment opportunities, and issues related to poverty, substance abuse, and cultural preservation that have arisen as a result of historical trauma and systemic discrimination.
Reservation system: The reservation system refers to the policy implemented by the United States government in the 19th century that designated specific areas of land for Native American tribes, often forcing them to relocate from their ancestral homelands. This system was a significant part of U.S. policy towards Indigenous peoples and is closely tied to land treaties, military conflicts, and efforts to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society.
Traditional practices continuation: Traditional practices continuation refers to the ongoing preservation and adaptation of cultural customs, rituals, and beliefs that have been passed down through generations within Indigenous communities. This concept emphasizes the importance of maintaining cultural identity and heritage, particularly in the face of modernization and external influences that often threaten traditional ways of life.
Transition to agriculture: The transition to agriculture refers to the significant shift from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one based on farming and domestication of animals, which began around 10,000 years ago. This change marked a pivotal point in human history, as it allowed societies to settle in one place, develop surplus food, and establish complex social structures. The move toward agriculture had profound effects on social organization, economic systems, and population growth.
Treaty system breakdown: The treaty system breakdown refers to the failure and collapse of agreements made between the United States government and Native American tribes, which were intended to establish peace, land rights, and sovereignty. This breakdown often led to increased conflict, forced removals, and loss of territory for Native peoples as the U.S. expanded westward, particularly during the period marking the end of the frontier.
Turner's Frontier Thesis: Turner's Frontier Thesis is the argument presented by historian Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893, claiming that the American frontier shaped the nation's character and institutions. He believed that the experience of westward expansion fostered individualism, democracy, and economic innovation, and that this unique development was fundamental to understanding American identity. The thesis suggested that the closing of the frontier in the 1890s marked a significant shift in American society and its future.
Urban migration trends: Urban migration trends refer to the patterns and movements of populations from rural areas to urban centers, often driven by factors such as economic opportunities, better living conditions, and access to services. This trend has significant implications for social, economic, and cultural transformations as people seek improved livelihoods in cities, particularly during times of rapid change like the end of the frontier.
Wounded Knee Massacre: The Wounded Knee Massacre was a tragic event that occurred on December 29, 1890, when U.S. Army soldiers killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux men, women, and children at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. This event symbolizes the violent culmination of U.S. government policies against Native Americans and highlights the tensions between Indigenous peoples and the federal government during a period marked by conflict and resistance.