Native American History
Table of Contents
The reservation system fundamentally altered Native American life, shifting from negotiation to forced confinement. It aimed to consolidate Native populations, open land for white settlement, and "civilize" tribes through assimilation policies. This represented a major change in US-Native relations.
Legally, the system was built on treaties, acts, and court decisions that often favored US interests. Key legislation like the Indian Removal Act and General Allotment Act reshaped Native lands and governance. Implementation varied by region, with many tribes forcibly relocated to less desirable areas.
Origins of reservation system
- Reservation system fundamentally altered Native American land ownership and governance structures
- Represented a significant shift in US-Native relations, moving from negotiation to forced confinement
- Aimed to consolidate Native populations and open up land for white settlement
Pre-reservation Native lands
- Native Americans occupied vast territories across North America prior to European contact
- Land use patterns varied by tribe, including nomadic hunting grounds and settled agricultural areas
- Concept of communal land ownership prevailed among many tribes
- Natural landmarks often defined tribal boundaries (rivers, mountain ranges)
European colonial policies
- Implemented doctrine of discovery to claim Native lands
- Established treaties and agreements to acquire territory
- Used concept of terra nullius to justify land seizures
- Introduced private property concepts conflicting with Native land use practices
US government motivations
- Sought to expand territory for growing white population
- Aimed to "civilize" Native Americans through assimilation policies
- Wanted to reduce conflicts between settlers and Native tribes
- Sought to consolidate Native populations for easier management and control
- Viewed reservations as temporary measure until Native Americans fully assimilated
Legal framework
- US government established legal structures to justify and implement reservation system
- Created complex web of treaties, acts, and court decisions shaping Native American policy
- Legal framework often favored US interests over Native rights and sovereignty
Treaty-making process
- US government negotiated over 370 treaties with Native American tribes
- Treaties often involved land cessions in exchange for reserved lands and services
- Many treaties signed under duress or with limited tribal understanding
- Senate ratification required for treaties to take effect
- Treaty-making ended in 1871, replaced by congressional acts and executive orders
Key legislation and acts
- Indian Removal Act (1830) authorized relocation of eastern tribes to western territories
- Indian Appropriations Act (1851) created reservation system to confine Native Americans
- General Allotment Act (1887) divided tribal lands into individual parcels
- Indian Reorganization Act (1934) ended allotment and promoted tribal self-governance
- Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975) increased tribal control over services
Supreme Court decisions
- Johnson v. M'Intosh (1823) established federal government's exclusive right to acquire Native lands
- Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) defined tribes as "domestic dependent nations"
- Worcester v. Georgia (1832) recognized tribal sovereignty and limited state jurisdiction on reservations
- Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock (1903) upheld Congress's power to unilaterally abrogate treaties
- Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe (1978) limited tribal criminal jurisdiction over non-Natives
Implementation and expansion
- Reservation system implementation occurred gradually over several decades
- Process varied by region and tribe, with some relocations more forceful than others
- Reservation boundaries frequently changed due to government policies and settler pressure
Early reservation establishment
- Initial reservations created in eastern United States (Iroquois reservations in New York)
- Plains tribes confined to reservations following series of wars in 1850s-1870s
- Pacific Northwest tribes relocated to reservations through treaties in 1850s
- Southwest tribes, including Navajo and Apache, forcibly moved to reservations in 1860s-1880s
- Alaska Natives largely exempt from reservation system until Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971
Westward expansion impact
- Manifest Destiny ideology drove aggressive territorial acquisition
- Discovery of gold and other resources intensified pressure on Native lands
- Transcontinental railroad construction accelerated white settlement of the West
- Decimation of buffalo herds undermined Plains tribes' traditional economies
- Increased military presence in the West facilitated forced relocation to reservations
Allotment era consequences
- Dawes Act of 1887 divided communal reservation lands into individual allotments
- Aimed to promote private property ownership and agricultural lifestyle among Natives
- Resulted in significant loss of Native land base (from 138 million acres to 48 million by 1934)
- Created checkerboard pattern of land ownership on many reservations
- Disrupted traditional governance structures and communal economic systems
Reservation geography
- Reservation locations often reflected US government priorities rather than tribal preferences
- Geographic isolation of many reservations created significant challenges for residents
- Reservation boundaries frequently changed due to government policies and settler encroachment
Land selection criteria
- Government often chose less desirable lands for reservations
- Prioritized areas with limited agricultural potential or valuable natural resources
- Considered proximity to white settlements to minimize conflicts
- Sometimes selected lands with cultural or spiritual significance to tribes
- Aimed to consolidate multiple tribes onto single reservations in some cases
Tribal displacement patterns
- Many eastern tribes forcibly relocated to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma)
- Plains tribes confined to reservations far smaller than their traditional territories
- Some tribes split across multiple reservations (Lakota, Apache)
- Coastal tribes often moved inland, away from valuable shoreline property
- Nomadic tribes struggled to adapt to sedentary life on fixed reservations
Resource availability issues
- Many reservations lacked adequate water sources for agriculture
- Mineral-rich lands often excluded from reservation boundaries or later seized
- Limited timber resources on some reservations hindered economic development
- Overhunting and habitat destruction depleted traditional food sources
- Isolation from markets and transportation routes impeded economic opportunities
Social and cultural effects
- Reservation system profoundly impacted Native American social structures and cultural practices
- Forced assimilation policies aimed to eradicate traditional Native ways of life
- Despite challenges, many tribes maintained cultural identities and adapted traditions
Traditional lifestyles vs reservation life
- Shift from nomadic or semi-nomadic lifestyles to sedentary existence
- Traditional hunting and gathering practices restricted by reservation boundaries
- Forced adoption of European-style agriculture often ill-suited to reservation lands
- Disruption of seasonal migration patterns and ceremonial cycles
- Increased reliance on government rations and commodities
Family and community disruption
- Forced relocation separated extended family networks
- Boarding school system removed children from tribal communities
- Traditional leadership structures undermined by imposed governance systems
- Overcrowding on reservations led to increased social tensions
- Loss of traditional gender roles and balance within families
Cultural preservation efforts
- Development of new artistic traditions (ledger art, beadwork)
- Adaptation of traditional ceremonies to reservation settings
- Oral history projects to preserve tribal knowledge and stories
- Revival of Native languages through immersion programs
- Establishment of tribal museums and cultural centers
Economic implications
- Reservation system severely disrupted traditional Native American economies
- Created cycle of poverty and dependency that persists on many reservations today
- Some tribes have achieved economic success through gaming, natural resources, or other enterprises
Loss of traditional economies
- Confinement to reservations limited access to hunting and gathering grounds
- Destruction of buffalo herds devastated Plains tribes' economic base
- Restricted trade networks between tribes and with non-Native partners
- Traditional skills and knowledge became less valuable in new economic context
- Forced shift from subsistence economies to cash-based systems
Government dependency
- Reliance on federal rations and annuities for basic necessities
- Bureau of Indian Affairs control over tribal resources and economic decisions
- Limited access to credit and capital for business development
- Restricted ability to leverage reservation lands for economic gain
- Perpetuation of paternalistic relationships between tribes and federal government
Poverty and unemployment rates
- Reservation unemployment rates often exceed 50%, far higher than national average
- Per capita income on reservations significantly lower than US average
- High rates of food insecurity and reliance on federal assistance programs
- Limited job opportunities on geographically isolated reservations
- Lack of infrastructure and basic services hinders economic development
Tribal sovereignty issues
- Reservation system created complex legal and political status for Native American tribes
- Concept of tribal sovereignty constantly evolving through legislation and court decisions
- Tension between tribal self-governance and federal oversight remains a key issue
Self-governance limitations
- Tribes subject to plenary power of Congress, limiting true sovereignty
- Secretary of Interior approval often required for tribal decisions
- Federal government holds tribal lands in trust, restricting land use options
- Tribal governments often lack full criminal jurisdiction on reservations
- State encroachment on tribal affairs despite federal recognition of sovereignty
Federal trust responsibility
- Government obligated to protect tribal lands, assets, and resources
- Provision of healthcare, education, and other services part of trust relationship
- Conflict between trust duty and federal control over tribal affairs
- Ongoing debates over extent and nature of trust responsibility
- Tribes seek more control over trust assets and decision-making
Jurisdictional complexities
- Checkerboard land ownership patterns create jurisdictional confusion
- Criminal jurisdiction divided between tribal, federal, and sometimes state authorities
- Civil jurisdiction varies depending on parties involved and nature of case
- Environmental regulations enforcement complicated by overlapping jurisdictions
- Taxation authority disputes between tribes, states, and federal government
Resistance and adaptation
- Native Americans actively resisted implementation of reservation system
- Tribes employed various strategies to maintain cultural identity and assert rights
- Adaptation to reservation life involved both compromise and innovation
Native American opposition movements
- Armed resistance (Great Sioux War, Nez Perce War, Apache Wars)
- Ghost Dance movement spread hope for cultural revival and end of white domination
- Formation of pan-Indian organizations (Society of American Indians, National Congress of American Indians)
- Legal challenges to land seizures and treaty violations
- Civil disobedience actions (Alcatraz occupation, Wounded Knee incident)
Negotiation and compromise strategies
- Some tribes negotiated for larger or more favorable reservation lands
- Adaptation of traditional governance structures to meet federal requirements
- Strategic use of US legal system to protect tribal rights
- Engagement with sympathetic reformers and politicians to influence policy
- Selective adoption of Western education and technologies while maintaining cultural practices
Cultural resilience examples
- Continuation of traditional ceremonies in secret despite federal bans
- Adaptation of native languages to written form for preservation
- Incorporation of new materials and techniques into traditional art forms
- Maintenance of oral histories and genealogies despite disruptions
- Revival of traditional ecological knowledge in natural resource management
Modern reservation challenges
- Reservations continue to face significant social, economic, and environmental issues
- Legacy of historical policies creates ongoing obstacles to development and self-determination
- Tribes working to address challenges through innovative programs and partnerships
Land fractionation problems
- Allotment policy led to highly fractionated land ownership
- Multiple heirs often share ownership of single parcels, complicating land use
- Cost of probate and title clearance hinders economic development
- Difficulty obtaining mortgages or loans on fractionated lands
- Tribal land buyback programs attempt to consolidate ownership
Infrastructure and development issues
- Many reservations lack basic infrastructure (roads, electricity, water systems)
- Limited access to broadband internet hinders educational and economic opportunities
- Housing shortages and substandard living conditions prevalent on many reservations
- Inadequate healthcare facilities and limited access to medical services
- Challenges in attracting and retaining businesses due to infrastructure deficits
Education and healthcare disparities
- Lower high school graduation rates compared to national average
- Limited access to higher education and vocational training opportunities
- Higher rates of chronic diseases (diabetes, heart disease) than general population
- Mental health and substance abuse issues exacerbated by historical trauma
- Underfunded and understaffed reservation schools struggle to meet student needs
Contemporary reservation policies
- Shift towards greater tribal self-determination and control in recent decades
- Efforts to address historical injustices and promote economic development
- Ongoing challenges in balancing tribal sovereignty with federal oversight
Self-determination era reforms
- Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975) allowed tribes to administer federal programs
- Tribal Self-Governance Act (1994) expanded tribal control over federal funding
- Native American Housing Assistance and Self-Determination Act (1996) reformed housing programs
- Tribal Law and Order Act (2010) enhanced tribal court sentencing authority
- HEARTH Act (2012) gave tribes greater control over land leasing
Economic development initiatives
- Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (1988) established framework for tribal casinos
- Native American Business Development, Trade Promotion, and Tourism Act (2000) promoted tribal businesses
- Energy Policy Act (2005) encouraged tribal energy resource development
- Tribal tourism initiatives showcase cultural heritage and natural resources
- Partnerships with corporations to establish businesses on tribal lands
Land restoration efforts
- Land Buy-Back Program for Tribal Nations addresses fractionation issues
- Fee-to-trust process allows tribes to expand land base
- Some tribes successful in reclaiming ancestral lands through purchases or donations
- Land claim settlements (Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act, Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act)
- Co-management agreements for federal lands with cultural or resource significance to tribes
Key Terms to Review (38)
Navajo: The Navajo, or Diné, are a Native American people who primarily reside in the Southwestern United States, particularly in the Four Corners region. They have a rich cultural heritage that includes unique traditions, art, and language, which have been shaped by historical events such as colonization and forced assimilation. Understanding the Navajo is essential to grasping their cultural exchange with other groups, their experiences on reservations, their language family's characteristics, the effects of forced assimilation on their languages, and the significance of their ceremonial objects and regalia.
Manifest Destiny: Manifest Destiny is the 19th-century doctrine that the expansion of the United States across the American continent was both justified and inevitable. This belief was rooted in a sense of American exceptionalism and a perceived divine right to spread democracy and capitalism, deeply impacting Native American communities and shaping U.S. policy and actions towards them.
Native American Business Development, Trade Promotion, and Tourism Act: The Native American Business Development, Trade Promotion, and Tourism Act is a legislative initiative aimed at promoting economic growth and development within Native American communities. This act focuses on supporting Native American businesses, enhancing trade opportunities, and increasing tourism on reservations, thereby contributing to the overall economic viability of these areas. By fostering entrepreneurship and trade relations, the act seeks to empower Indigenous communities and improve their economic prospects.
Indian Gaming Regulatory Act: The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA) is a federal law enacted in 1988 that regulates the operation of gaming activities on Indian reservations in the United States. The act establishes a framework for the regulation of tribal gaming, balancing the interests of tribes, states, and the federal government while aiming to promote tribal economic development.
Tribal Self-Governance Act: The Tribal Self-Governance Act is a federal law enacted in 1994 that allows Native American tribes to take control of their own government programs and services, shifting from federal oversight to self-determination. This act empowers tribes to manage funding and make decisions that best suit their communities, thereby promoting sovereignty and enhancing their capacity to govern themselves effectively. It represents a critical step towards recognizing the inherent rights of tribes to self-govern and manage their own affairs.
Federal Trust Responsibility: Federal trust responsibility refers to the legal obligation of the United States government to protect the interests and welfare of Native American tribes and their members. This includes providing services, safeguarding tribal lands, and upholding treaties made with indigenous nations. The trust relationship creates a duty for the federal government to act in the best interest of tribes, especially regarding land use and living conditions on reservations.
Transcontinental railroad: The transcontinental railroad was a massive railway system completed in 1869 that connected the eastern United States with the western territories, significantly impacting transportation and commerce. This monumental engineering achievement not only revolutionized travel and trade but also played a critical role in the establishment of reservations by facilitating the movement of settlers and goods, which directly influenced Native American lands and lifestyles.
Pacific Northwest Tribes: Pacific Northwest Tribes refer to the Indigenous peoples inhabiting the coastal regions of the Pacific Northwest, primarily in what is now Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia. These tribes, known for their rich cultural traditions, fishing practices, and complex social structures, experienced significant changes during the establishment of reservations which altered their traditional ways of life and land use.
Alaska Natives: Alaska Natives are the indigenous peoples of Alaska, encompassing a diverse range of ethnic groups with unique cultures, languages, and histories. They include groups such as the Inuit, Yupik, Aleut, and various Athabaskan tribes, who have lived in the region for thousands of years and have adapted to its harsh environments. The establishment of reservations and land rights has significantly impacted their communities and ways of life, particularly during the U.S. government’s policies in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Plains tribes: Plains tribes refer to a diverse group of Native American nations that primarily inhabited the Great Plains region of North America. These tribes, including the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Comanche, were known for their nomadic lifestyle, centered around buffalo hunting, and developed a rich cultural heritage that includes unique ceremonial practices and regalia. Their way of life was dramatically altered with the establishment of reservations, which restricted their traditional hunting grounds and impacted their cultural expressions.
Sioux Nation: The Sioux Nation is a confederation of several Native American tribes that share cultural, linguistic, and historical ties, primarily located in the Great Plains region of the United States. Comprising three main divisions – the Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota – the Sioux Nation has a rich heritage and played a crucial role in resistance against U.S. government policies, particularly during the establishment of reservations which aimed to confine and control their traditional lands.
Lakota: The Lakota are a Native American tribe that is part of the larger Sioux Nation, traditionally inhabiting the Great Plains of North America. Known for their rich culture, spirituality, and resistance to U.S. government policies, the Lakota have played a significant role in the history of Native American interactions with settlers, especially during the establishment of reservations, efforts to suppress their language, and the evolution of their written language.
Permanent Reservations: Permanent reservations refer to designated areas of land set aside by the U.S. government for Native American tribes to live and govern themselves. These reservations were intended to provide a stable homeland for tribes that were displaced during westward expansion and were meant to be a long-term solution for their land rights and sovereignty.
Education access: Education access refers to the ability of individuals or groups to obtain quality education and resources, regardless of their background or circumstances. This concept highlights the barriers that marginalized communities, including Native American populations, face in achieving equal educational opportunities, particularly within the context of governmental policies and reservation systems that have historically limited their access to resources.
Temporary reservations: Temporary reservations are designated areas of land set aside for Native American tribes by the federal government, often intended to provide a short-term solution to address specific needs or circumstances. These reservations differ from permanent reservations, as they can be established for limited durations and may not be intended for long-term tribal settlement. This concept highlights the ongoing negotiations and changing dynamics between Native American tribes and federal authorities regarding land rights and sovereignty.
Apache: The Apache are a group of culturally related Native American tribes originally from the Southwestern United States, including Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Texas and Mexico. Known for their warrior culture and resistance to colonization, the Apache played a crucial role in the dynamics of Native American history and U.S. expansion, particularly during the establishment of reservations and the acknowledgment of diverse language families among Native peoples.
Poverty rates: Poverty rates refer to the percentage of a population that lives below the poverty line, which is determined by specific income thresholds and varying criteria across regions. These rates are crucial for understanding the economic struggles faced by different communities, particularly in how systemic issues have led to persistent poverty levels among Native populations. The establishment of reservations, the living conditions on those reservations, and the long-term effects on Native communities are all deeply intertwined with these poverty rates.
Trust land: Trust land refers to land held in trust by the federal government for the benefit of Native American tribes and their members. This arrangement ensures that the land is protected from seizure and is managed in a way that promotes the economic and social welfare of the tribes, connecting deeply to historical policies surrounding reservations, allotment, and living conditions.
Johnson v. M'Intosh: Johnson v. M'Intosh is a landmark Supreme Court case from 1823 that established the legal principle that private citizens could not purchase land directly from Native American tribes, and that only the federal government had the authority to acquire land from them. This decision underscored the legal framework governing the relationship between Native Americans and the U.S. government, impacting the establishment of reservations, the trust relationship with the federal government, and the development of federal Indian law.
Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe: Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe is a landmark U.S. Supreme Court case from 1978 that determined tribal courts do not have jurisdiction over non-Indians who commit crimes on tribal land. This ruling highlighted the limitations of tribal sovereignty and raised significant questions about the legal status of Native American reservations and the extent of federal Indian law.
Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act: The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 is a landmark piece of legislation that allows Native American tribes to have greater control over their own affairs, including the management of federal funding for education and social services. This act embodies the principles of tribal sovereignty and self-governance, marking a significant shift in the relationship between the federal government and Native American tribes.
Native American Policy: Native American policy refers to the strategies and regulations implemented by the United States government to manage its relations with Indigenous tribes. These policies evolved over time, transitioning from early treaties recognizing tribal sovereignty to the establishment of reservations, which often confined Native peoples to specific areas and imposed restrictions on their traditional ways of life. The overarching goal of these policies was frequently to assimilate Native Americans into Euro-American culture and control their lands.
Indian Appropriations Act: The Indian Appropriations Act is a series of laws enacted by the U.S. Congress that allocated funds for various purposes related to Native American tribes and their management. This legislation established a framework for the establishment of reservations, reinforcing federal control over Native lands, and shaping the trust relationship between the federal government and Indigenous peoples. Furthermore, it significantly impacted land rights and efforts to protect sacred sites through its funding and policies.
Treaty-making process: The treaty-making process refers to the formal steps taken by governments or sovereign entities to negotiate, draft, and ratify treaties, which are legally binding agreements. This process is crucial for establishing relationships and agreements between different parties, particularly in the context of Native American tribes and the federal government, as it often determines land rights, resources, and self-governance.
Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock is a significant U.S. Supreme Court case decided in 1903, which upheld the authority of Congress to unilaterally alter treaties made with Native American tribes without their consent. This case is crucial as it established a legal precedent that Congress could disregard the terms of treaties, impacting various aspects of Native American rights, land ownership, and federal authority over tribal affairs.
Allotment: Allotment refers to the distribution of land, specifically under U.S. government policies aimed at assimilating Native Americans into American society by dividing communal tribal lands into individual plots. This practice sought to encourage farming and land ownership among Native Americans, moving them away from their traditional communal lifestyles. Through allotment, many tribes faced significant loss of land and cultural identity, as excess land was often sold to non-Native settlers.
General Allotment Act: The General Allotment Act, also known as the Dawes Act, was a law passed in 1887 aimed at assimilating Native Americans into American society by allotting them individual parcels of land. This act represented a shift from communal land ownership to private land ownership, significantly impacting Native American cultures, their land rights, and the establishment of reservations.
Tribal Sovereignty: Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent authority of Indigenous tribes to govern themselves and make decisions about their own affairs without interference from outside authorities. This concept is deeply rooted in the historical and legal frameworks surrounding Native American communities, influencing their social structures, interactions with colonial powers, and ongoing struggles for rights and recognition.
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia: Cherokee Nation v. Georgia was a landmark case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1831 that addressed the relationship between Native American tribes and the federal government. The case involved the Cherokee Nation's attempt to seek legal protection against Georgia's oppressive laws, which aimed to remove them from their ancestral lands. This case laid the groundwork for future legal battles and highlighted the complexities of tribal sovereignty and federal authority.
Worcester v. Georgia: Worcester v. Georgia was a landmark Supreme Court case in 1832 that ruled that the state of Georgia could not impose its laws within the boundaries of the Cherokee Nation, asserting that only the federal government had authority over Native American lands. This case highlighted the ongoing struggle between state and federal powers regarding Native American sovereignty and rights.
Indian Reorganization Act: The Indian Reorganization Act, enacted in 1934, aimed to reverse the damage caused by previous assimilation policies and restore tribal self-governance. This act was a significant shift in federal Indian policy, encouraging tribes to reestablish their governments and manage their lands and resources.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority of a state or governing body to govern itself without external interference. In the context of Native American history, sovereignty is crucial as it highlights the inherent rights of tribes to self-govern, manage their lands, and maintain their cultural identities amidst colonial and federal pressures.
Reservation system: The reservation system refers to the policy implemented by the United States government in the 19th century that designated specific areas of land for Native American tribes, often forcing them to relocate from their ancestral homelands. This system was a significant part of U.S. policy towards Indigenous peoples and is closely tied to land treaties, military conflicts, and efforts to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society.
Cultural Assimilation: Cultural assimilation is the process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural norms of another group, often leading to a loss of their original cultural identity. This concept has played a significant role in the history of various societies, particularly in the interactions between Indigenous peoples and European settlers, where it often resulted in profound changes to social structures, traditions, and ways of life.
Cherokee Nation: The Cherokee Nation is a federally recognized Native American tribe based in Oklahoma, originally from the southeastern United States. They have a rich cultural heritage and a significant historical role, particularly during events like the American Revolution, the establishment of reservations, and tribal recognition processes that shaped their current status and rights.
Dawes Act: The Dawes Act, enacted in 1887, aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting them individual plots of land and granting them U.S. citizenship. This legislation significantly altered the land ownership system for Native Americans and sought to eradicate tribal communal living, promoting individual land ownership as a path to integration into mainstream American culture.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act of 1830 was a law that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the river. This act was a significant part of a broader policy aimed at clearing lands for European-American settlement, reflecting the belief in Manifest Destiny and the nation's expansionist ambitions.
Iroquois: The Iroquois, also known as the Haudenosaunee, are a confederation of six Native American nations in North America, including the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. Known for their sophisticated political structure and agricultural practices, they played a crucial role in shaping the interactions between Native Americans and European settlers during the early periods of contact and colonization.