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Native American History
Table of Contents
Unit 4 Overview: Westward Expansion and Native American Conflicts
4.1 Manifest Destiny
4.2 Trail of Tears
4.3 Plains Indian Wars
4.4 Battle of Little Bighorn
4.5 Wounded Knee Massacre
4.6 Buffalo extermination
4.7 Dawes Act
4.8 End of the frontier

The Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890 marked a tragic end to the Indian Wars, highlighting the brutal culmination of U.S. expansion policies and Native American resistance. This event encapsulated decades of broken treaties, forced relocations, and cultural suppression that defined U.S.-Native relations.

The massacre occurred amid rising tensions fueled by the Ghost Dance movement and U.S. military presence on reservations. It resulted in the deaths of 150-300 Lakota, mostly women and children, leaving a lasting impact on Native communities and shaping future indigenous rights movements.

Background of Wounded Knee

  • Wounded Knee Massacre marked a tragic culmination of decades-long conflicts between Native Americans and the U.S. government
  • Incident occurred on December 29, 1890, near Wounded Knee Creek on the Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota
  • Represented a pivotal moment in Native American history, highlighting the ongoing struggle for sovereignty and cultural preservation

Lakota Ghost Dance movement

  • Religious revival spreading among Native American tribes in the late 19th century
  • Promised spiritual renewal and the return of traditional ways of life
  • Incorporated elements of traditional Native beliefs and Christian teachings
  • Practiced through ritualistic circle dances and songs
  • Viewed with suspicion and fear by U.S. authorities who misinterpreted its peaceful nature

Tensions with U.S. government

  • Broken treaties and forced relocation onto reservations fueled Native American distrust
  • Diminishing buffalo herds threatened Lakota way of life and economic independence
  • Implementation of assimilation policies aimed at erasing Native cultures
  • Increased military presence on reservations heightened anxiety among Native communities
  • Growing resistance to government control and desire for self-determination among tribes

Arrival of 7th Cavalry

  • Deployed to Pine Ridge Reservation to quell perceived unrest related to Ghost Dance
  • Commanded by Colonel James W. Forsyth, carried historical baggage from Little Bighorn
  • Arrived with a force of 500 soldiers, heavily armed and on high alert
  • Intercepted Chief Big Foot's band of Miniconjou Lakota en route to Pine Ridge Agency
  • Escorted the Lakota group to Wounded Knee Creek, establishing a tense encampment

Key figures

Chief Big Foot

  • Lakota leader of Miniconjou band, also known as Spotted Elk
  • Sought peaceful resolution and protection for his people during tumultuous times
  • Led his group towards Pine Ridge Agency seeking refuge with Chief Red Cloud
  • Suffered from pneumonia during the journey, weakening his ability to mediate
  • Killed during the massacre, his frozen body later photographed in a symbolic image

Colonel James W. Forsyth

  • Commander of the 7th Cavalry Regiment during the Wounded Knee incident
  • Tasked with disarming Big Foot's band and escorting them to a military prison
  • Made critical decisions that escalated tensions during the disarmament process
  • Faced criticism and a military inquiry for his handling of the situation
  • Later exonerated by the Army, but his actions remained controversial

Black Coyote incident

  • Lakota man identified as the initial trigger for the outbreak of violence
  • Reportedly deaf and did not understand orders to surrender his rifle
  • Struggled with soldiers attempting to take his weapon, leading to its discharge
  • Gunshot sparked widespread panic and confusion among both Lakota and soldiers
  • Debate continues over the exact circumstances and responsibility for this pivotal moment

Events of the massacre

Disarmament attempt

  • 7th Cavalry surrounded Lakota camp on morning of December 29, 1890
  • Soldiers demanded surrender of all weapons from Big Foot's band
  • Search of tipis yielded only a few weapons, increasing soldiers' suspicion
  • Lakota men gathered in council area while women and children remained in camp
  • Tensions escalated as soldiers grew impatient with the slow disarmament process

Outbreak of violence

  • Scuffle over Black Coyote's rifle led to its discharge, igniting chaos
  • Soldiers opened fire indiscriminately into the Lakota crowd
  • Lakota warriors fought back with concealed weapons and hand-to-hand combat
  • Hotchkiss guns on nearby hill unleashed devastating firepower on the camp
  • Fighting spread rapidly, engulfing the entire area in violence

Civilian casualties

  • Women and children caught in crossfire as they fled the camp
  • Many killed by artillery fire as they sought shelter in a nearby ravine
  • Soldiers pursued fleeing Lakota for miles, killing many who tried to escape
  • Reports of wounded being executed, including women and children
  • Freezing temperatures compounded the suffering of survivors and wounded

Aftermath and consequences

Death toll and injuries

  • Estimates vary, but approximately 150-300 Lakota killed, including women and children
  • At least 25 U.S. soldiers died, many possibly from friendly fire in the chaos
  • Dozens of Lakota wounded, many left to die in the bitter cold
  • Survivors faced harsh winter conditions with little food or shelter
  • Long-term physical and psychological trauma impacted both Lakota and soldiers

Military honors controversy

  • 20 Medals of Honor awarded to 7th Cavalry soldiers for actions at Wounded Knee
  • Sparked debate over the appropriateness of honoring participants in a massacre
  • Native American groups have long campaigned for rescinding these medals
  • Controversy highlights differing interpretations of the event's nature
  • Ongoing discussions about how to address this aspect of military history

Impact on Lakota people

  • Devastated Lakota population and morale, marking end of armed resistance
  • Accelerated loss of traditional culture and way of life
  • Deepened distrust and resentment towards U.S. government
  • Led to increased poverty and dependence on reservation system
  • Became a rallying point for future generations of Native American activists

Historical interpretations

U.S. government perspective

  • Initially portrayed as a necessary military action against hostile Indians
  • Official reports downplayed civilian casualties and emphasized soldier heroism
  • Justified as part of broader policy to subdue Native American resistance
  • Gradually shifted towards acknowledging the event as a regrettable tragedy
  • Modern government statements express remorse without full admission of culpability

Native American accounts

  • Emphasize the peaceful intentions of Big Foot's band seeking protection
  • Describe indiscriminate killing of unarmed men, women, and children
  • Highlight broken promises and betrayal by U.S. government and military
  • Preserve oral histories passed down through generations
  • Stress the long-term impact on Lakota culture and community

Modern scholarly analysis

  • Examines Wounded Knee within broader context of U.S.-Native American relations
  • Critiques earlier accounts for bias and inaccuracies in both military and Native sources
  • Utilizes archaeological evidence and newly discovered documents to reconstruct events
  • Explores psychological factors contributing to the escalation of violence
  • Considers Wounded Knee as a case study in colonialism and cultural conflict

Cultural significance

Symbolism in Native resistance

  • Wounded Knee became a powerful symbol of Native American oppression
  • Inspired future generations of activists in the fight for indigenous rights
  • Referenced in protests and political actions (American Indian Movement occupation in 1973)
  • Represents resilience and survival of Native cultures despite historical trauma
  • Used to advocate for recognition of past injustices and calls for reconciliation

Artistic and literary depictions

  • Inspired numerous books, poems, and songs across various genres
  • Notable works include Dee Brown's "Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee"
  • Visual artists have created paintings, sculptures, and installations commemorating the event
  • Native American artists use Wounded Knee imagery to explore themes of identity and history
  • Documentaries and films have brought the story to wider audiences, shaping public perception
  • Referenced in music lyrics across multiple genres (folk, rock, hip-hop)
  • Featured in television shows and movies dealing with Native American themes
  • Used as a shorthand for historical injustices against indigenous peoples
  • Influences naming of organizations and events related to Native rights
  • Contributes to ongoing discussions about representation of Native history in media

Legacy and remembrance

Memorials and commemorations

  • Wounded Knee National Historic Landmark established in 1965
  • Annual ceremonies held at the site to honor victims and survivors
  • Controversial monument erected in 1903, seen by some as offensive
  • Efforts to create more culturally appropriate memorials and educational centers
  • Debate over repatriation of artifacts and remains from the massacre site

Continued activism

  • Wounded Knee inspires modern Native American rights movements
  • Used to advocate for land rights, cultural preservation, and sovereignty
  • Informs discussions on issues like mascots, environmental protection, and education
  • Shapes Native American political engagement and representation
  • Influences international indigenous rights movements and solidarity efforts

Reconciliation efforts

  • Formal apologies from some government officials and religious organizations
  • Initiatives to improve education about Wounded Knee and Native American history
  • Cross-cultural dialogue programs between Native and non-Native communities
  • Calls for federal recognition of the event as a massacre rather than a battle
  • Ongoing challenges in addressing historical trauma and building trust

Historical context

Indian Wars timeline

  • Wounded Knee considered the last major armed conflict of the Indian Wars
  • Followed decades of warfare between Native tribes and U.S. forces (1850s-1890s)
  • Notable conflicts included Little Bighorn (1876) and Nez Perce War (1877)
  • Represented shift from large-scale battles to smaller, more localized conflicts
  • Marked transition to new era of Native American-U.S. relations focused on reservations

U.S. expansion policies

  • Manifest Destiny ideology drove westward expansion and land acquisition
  • Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged settlement of Native territories
  • Treaties often used to legitimize land cessions, frequently broken or ignored
  • Military campaigns aimed at forcibly relocating tribes to reservations
  • Assimilation policies sought to eradicate Native cultures and languages

Native American reservation system

  • Established to confine Native populations to designated areas
  • Dramatically reduced land base and access to traditional resources
  • Imposed unfamiliar agricultural practices and economic systems
  • Facilitated government control over Native education and religious practices
  • Created long-term dependencies and social challenges within Native communities

Key Terms to Review (20)

Manifest Destiny: Manifest Destiny is the 19th-century doctrine that the expansion of the United States across the American continent was both justified and inevitable. This belief was rooted in a sense of American exceptionalism and a perceived divine right to spread democracy and capitalism, deeply impacting Native American communities and shaping U.S. policy and actions towards them.
Land dispossession: Land dispossession refers to the process through which Indigenous peoples lose their rights to their ancestral lands, often due to colonial expansion, government policies, and economic interests. This term encapsulates the broader theme of Indigenous displacement, cultural erasure, and the struggle for land rights, which has been a persistent issue throughout history.
Little Bighorn: The Battle of Little Bighorn, fought on June 25-26, 1876, was a significant confrontation between the U.S. Army and Native American forces, particularly the Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne tribes. This battle is often referred to as Custer's Last Stand, as it ended with the defeat of General George Armstrong Custer and his troops, highlighting the intense conflict between Native Americans and U.S. expansionist policies.
Disarmament Attempt: A disarmament attempt refers to efforts made to reduce or eliminate weapons, especially in the context of military conflicts. In the aftermath of violent events, such as the Wounded Knee Massacre, these attempts aimed to control or disband armed groups and reduce tensions between Native American tribes and the U.S. government, often resulting in significant political and social consequences.
Black Coyote Incident: The Black Coyote Incident refers to a tragic event during the Wounded Knee Massacre in December 1890, where an Indian man named Black Coyote was killed after a misunderstanding occurred when U.S. soldiers attempted to disarm the Lakota Sioux. This incident escalated tensions and contributed to the chaotic violence that ensued, leading to the deaths of many Native Americans, including women and children, as the soldiers opened fire on the group.
Native American Resistance: Native American resistance refers to the various forms of opposition and struggle that Indigenous peoples in North America engaged in against European colonization and later U.S. expansion. This resistance took many forms, including armed conflict, diplomatic negotiations, and cultural preservation efforts, as Indigenous communities sought to maintain their land, sovereignty, and way of life amid increasing pressure from settlers and government policies.
Broken treaties: Broken treaties refer to agreements made between the U.S. government and Native American tribes that were not honored or upheld by the government. These violations often resulted in the loss of land, resources, and rights for Indigenous peoples, leading to significant social and economic challenges. Throughout history, these broken agreements have contributed to deep mistrust and ongoing conflicts between Native American communities and federal authorities.
Chief Big Foot: Chief Big Foot was a Lakota Sioux leader known for his role in the events leading up to the Wounded Knee Massacre in December 1890. He was recognized for his efforts to maintain peace between Native Americans and U.S. government forces during a period of intense conflict and distrust, especially following the Ghost Dance movement, which aimed to restore traditional Native American ways of life.
Colonel James W. Forsyth: Colonel James W. Forsyth was a United States Army officer who played a significant role in the Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890. His leadership and decisions during this tragic event led to the deaths of many Lakota Sioux, marking a turning point in U.S. government policies toward Native Americans and a reflection of the broader tensions between settlers and Indigenous populations.
7th Cavalry: The 7th Cavalry is a United States Army regiment known for its involvement in several significant conflicts, particularly during the Indian Wars of the late 19th century. Its most infamous moment came during the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, where it played a central role in the violent suppression of the Lakota Sioux people, marking a tragic end to the armed conflicts between Native Americans and U.S. forces.
Miniconjou Lakota: The Miniconjou Lakota are a sub-group of the Lakota Sioux people, known for their rich cultural heritage and historical significance in the Great Plains. They played a pivotal role in the resistance against U.S. government policies during the 19th century, particularly during events like the Wounded Knee Massacre, which marked a tragic chapter in Native American history and highlighted the struggles of Indigenous peoples.
Indian Wars: The Indian Wars were a series of conflicts between European settlers and Indigenous peoples in North America, primarily during the 19th century. These wars were driven by the expansion of settlers into Native lands, leading to violent confrontations over territory and resources. The consequences of these conflicts were profound, resulting in significant loss of life, displacement of Native communities, and the systematic erosion of Indigenous cultures and sovereignty.
Wounded Knee Massacre: The Wounded Knee Massacre was a tragic event that occurred on December 29, 1890, when U.S. Army soldiers killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux men, women, and children at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. This event symbolizes the violent culmination of U.S. government policies against Native Americans and highlights the tensions between Indigenous peoples and the federal government during a period marked by conflict and resistance.
Tribal Sovereignty: Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent authority of Indigenous tribes to govern themselves and make decisions about their own affairs without interference from outside authorities. This concept is deeply rooted in the historical and legal frameworks surrounding Native American communities, influencing their social structures, interactions with colonial powers, and ongoing struggles for rights and recognition.
Nez Perce War: The Nez Perce War was a conflict between the Nez Perce tribe and the United States government that took place in 1877, primarily driven by the U.S. government's attempts to force the Nez Perce onto a reservation in Idaho. This war is emblematic of the broader struggles of Native American tribes during the era of expansionism and reflects themes of resistance against encroachment, which can be connected to the concept of Manifest Destiny, the tragic events at Wounded Knee, and various resistance movements that emerged as Indigenous peoples fought to preserve their lands and cultures.
American Indian Movement: The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a civil rights organization founded in 1968 that seeks to address issues of sovereignty, treaty rights, and cultural preservation for Native Americans. It emerged in response to systemic injustices and discrimination faced by Indigenous peoples, aiming to unite tribes and raise awareness of their struggles against oppression and cultural assimilation.
Ghost Dance: The Ghost Dance was a spiritual movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century that aimed to restore traditional ways of life and bring about a renewal of their culture, ultimately seeking to end the suffering caused by colonization. It emerged as a response to oppression, promoting hope for a future where Native Americans could live in harmony with their ancestors and regain control over their lands.
Reservation system: The reservation system refers to the policy implemented by the United States government in the 19th century that designated specific areas of land for Native American tribes, often forcing them to relocate from their ancestral homelands. This system was a significant part of U.S. policy towards Indigenous peoples and is closely tied to land treaties, military conflicts, and efforts to assimilate Native Americans into mainstream American society.
Cultural Assimilation: Cultural assimilation is the process by which individuals or groups adopt the cultural norms of another group, often leading to a loss of their original cultural identity. This concept has played a significant role in the history of various societies, particularly in the interactions between Indigenous peoples and European settlers, where it often resulted in profound changes to social structures, traditions, and ways of life.
Dawes Act: The Dawes Act, enacted in 1887, aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting them individual plots of land and granting them U.S. citizenship. This legislation significantly altered the land ownership system for Native Americans and sought to eradicate tribal communal living, promoting individual land ownership as a path to integration into mainstream American culture.