Native American History

4.1 Manifest Destiny

Citation:

Manifest Destiny shaped 19th-century American expansion westward, profoundly impacting Native communities. This ideology justified territorial acquisition as a divine right, intertwining with notions of racial superiority and cultural dominance over indigenous peoples.

The concept led to massive territorial expansion, including the Louisiana Purchase, Oregon Territory, and Mexican-American War acquisitions. These land grabs resulted in forced relocations, cultural disruption, and devastating consequences for Native American populations across the continent.

Origins of Manifest Destiny

Manifest Destiny shaped 19th century American expansion westward, profoundly impacting Native American communities
Ideology justified territorial acquisition as a divine right and duty of the United States
Concept intertwined with notions of racial superiority and cultural dominance over indigenous peoples

Concept of American exceptionalism

Belief in the unique virtues and destiny of the United States
Portrayed America as a model nation with a mission to spread democracy and civilization
Justified expansion as a means to extend American institutions and values
Reinforced ideas of cultural and racial superiority over Native Americans
Influenced foreign policy and domestic attitudes towards indigenous populations

Influence of Jacksonian democracy

Emphasized popular sovereignty and expanded voting rights for white males
Promoted agrarian ideals and individual land ownership
Encouraged westward expansion as a means of economic opportunity
Supported removal of Native Americans to make way for white settlers
Reinforced the notion of "common man's democracy" at the expense of indigenous rights

Religious and moral justifications

Invoked divine providence as sanction for territorial expansion
Framed westward movement as a civilizing mission to "tame" the wilderness
Used Protestant Christianity to justify conversion and assimilation of Native peoples
Employed the concept of "Manifest Destiny" coined by John L. O'Sullivan in 1845
Portrayed expansion as a moral obligation to spread American values and institutions

Territorial expansion westward

Westward expansion dramatically reshaped the North American continent in the 19th century
Acquisition of vast territories led to displacement and conflict with Native American nations
Process fundamentally altered the balance of power between the U.S. and indigenous peoples

Louisiana Purchase implications

Doubled the size of the United States in 1803
Opened vast new territories for American settlement and exploration
Increased pressure on Native American lands east of the Mississippi River
Facilitated further westward expansion and encounters with new indigenous nations
Led to the Lewis and Clark expedition, mapping and documenting western territories

Oregon Territory dispute

Contested region between the United States and Great Britain
Slogan "Fifty-four Forty or Fight" reflected American expansionist sentiment
Oregon Treaty of 1846 established the 49th parallel as the northern U.S. border
Opened Pacific Northwest to American settlement, impacting local Native tribes (Chinook, Nez Perce)
Intensified conflicts over land and resources between settlers and indigenous peoples

Mexican-American War consequences

Resulted in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848
Acquired nearly half of Mexico's territory, including California and the Southwest
Brought diverse Native American groups under U.S. control (Apache, Navajo, Pueblo)
Intensified debates over the expansion of slavery into new territories
Accelerated the pace of westward expansion and settlement

Impact on Native Americans

Manifest Destiny had devastating consequences for Native American populations
Policies of removal and relocation disrupted traditional ways of life and social structures
Expansion led to loss of ancestral lands and resources crucial for indigenous survival

Forced relocation policies

Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the relocation of eastern tribes
Five Civilized Tribes (Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, Seminole) forcibly moved west
Establishment of Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) as designated Native land
Broken treaties and coerced agreements used to justify removals
Resulted in significant loss of life, cultural disruption, and economic hardship

Trail of Tears

Forced relocation of Cherokee Nation from southeastern U.S. to Indian Territory
Approximately 15,000 Cherokee people marched over 1,000 miles
Harsh conditions led to thousands of deaths from disease, starvation, and exposure
Exemplified the human cost of Manifest Destiny and Indian removal policies
Became a symbol of Native American suffering and resistance to forced relocation

Breakdown of tribal sovereignty

U.S. government increasingly interfered with internal tribal affairs
Imposed American legal and political systems on Native nations
Undermined traditional leadership structures and decision-making processes
Restricted Native Americans' ability to manage their own lands and resources
Led to dependence on federal government for basic needs and services

Manifest Destiny profoundly shaped American cultural identity and social attitudes
Created enduring stereotypes and misconceptions about Native American cultures
Influenced literature, art, and popular perceptions of the American West

Romanticization of the frontier

Portrayed the West as an untamed wilderness ripe for conquest
Celebrated pioneer spirit and rugged individualism
Depicted Native Americans as obstacles to progress or noble savages
Inspired works of art and literature (paintings of Albert Bierstadt, novels of James Fenimore Cooper)
Reinforced the narrative of manifest destiny and American exceptionalism

Myth of the vanishing Indian

Perpetuated the idea that Native Americans were destined to disappear
Justified policies of removal and assimilation as inevitable historical processes
Ignored the resilience and adaptability of indigenous cultures
Influenced representations in popular culture and academic discourse
Contributed to the erasure of Native American perspectives from historical narratives

Anglo-American vs Native worldviews

Contrasted individualistic, property-based Anglo-American values with communal Native traditions
Emphasized different concepts of land ownership and resource management
Highlighted conflicting spiritual and religious beliefs (Christianity vs indigenous spirituality)
Reflected divergent approaches to nature and environmental stewardship
Resulted in misunderstandings and conflicts over treaty rights and obligations

Economic motivations

Economic factors played a crucial role in driving westward expansion
Manifest Destiny provided ideological justification for economic exploitation of new territories
Expansion created opportunities and conflicts related to land, resources, and development

Land speculation and settlement

Government land sales and homesteading encouraged westward migration
Speculators acquired large tracts of land for resale at higher prices
Displaced Native Americans from traditional hunting and agricultural lands
Created conflicts over land rights and resource access
Led to the establishment of new towns, farms, and ranches across the West

Resource exploitation

Discovery of gold and other minerals sparked rushes (California Gold Rush of 1849)
Timber harvesting in the Pacific Northwest supported eastward expansion
Overhunting of buffalo disrupted Plains Indian economies and cultures
Mining and resource extraction often occurred on or near Native American lands
Led to environmental degradation and depletion of resources crucial to indigenous communities

Transcontinental railroad development

Facilitated rapid transportation and communication across the continent
Completed in 1869, linking eastern and western United States
Accelerated westward migration and settlement
Disrupted Native American territories and traditional migration routes
Contributed to the near-extinction of the American bison, a key resource for Plains tribes

Political ramifications

Manifest Destiny shaped American political discourse and policy-making
Expansion exacerbated existing tensions and created new political challenges
Policies towards Native Americans became increasingly centralized and interventionist

Sectional tensions and slavery

Debates over the expansion of slavery into new territories intensified
Missouri Compromise of 1820 and Compromise of 1850 attempted to maintain balance
Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 led to violent conflicts over slavery in new territories
Contributed to growing divisions between North and South, leading to Civil War
Impacted Native American alliances and involvement in broader national conflicts

Indian Removal Act of 1830

Authorized the president to negotiate removal treaties with eastern tribes
Passed under Andrew Jackson's administration, reflecting Jacksonian democracy ideals
Led to forced relocations of numerous tribes to lands west of the Mississippi
Resulted in significant loss of life and cultural disruption for affected tribes
Set a precedent for future policies of Native American displacement and containment

Treaty-making and violations

U.S. government entered into numerous treaties with Native American nations
Treaties often used to acquire land and resources from indigenous peoples
Many treaties violated or unilaterally abrogated by the U.S. government
Created ongoing legal and political disputes over land rights and sovereignty
Undermined trust between Native American nations and the federal government

Resistance and adaptation

Native American communities actively resisted and adapted to the pressures of Manifest Destiny
Various strategies employed to maintain cultural identity and defend territorial rights
Resistance took forms ranging from armed conflict to legal and diplomatic efforts

Native American alliances

Tribes formed coalitions to resist encroachment and defend territories
Tecumseh's Confederacy united tribes against American expansion in early 1800s
Intertribal cooperation increased in face of common threats (Lakota-Cheyenne alliance)
Some tribes allied with European powers to counter American influence (War of 1812)
Alliances often transcended traditional tribal boundaries and rivalries

Armed conflicts and wars

Numerous wars fought between Native Americans and U.S. forces (Seminole Wars, Plains Indian Wars)
Battle of Little Bighorn (1876) saw victory of Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho forces
Nez Perce War (1877) led by Chief Joseph in attempt to resist relocation
Ghost Dance movement of 1890 culminated in Wounded Knee Massacre
Armed resistance ultimately suppressed by superior U.S. military technology and numbers

Cultural preservation efforts

Native communities developed strategies to maintain languages and traditions
Oral histories and storytelling preserved cultural knowledge and tribal histories
Adaptation of traditional practices to new circumstances (reservation life)
Development of pan-Indian movements to unite diverse tribes (Native American Church)
Efforts to protect sacred sites and maintain spiritual practices despite restrictions

Legacy and modern perspectives

Manifest Destiny's impact continues to shape contemporary Native American issues
Critical reassessment of the ideology and its consequences in modern scholarship
Ongoing struggles for indigenous rights and cultural revitalization

Critique of Manifest Destiny

Scholars and activists challenge the moral and ethical basis of the ideology
Recognition of Manifest Destiny's role in genocide and cultural destruction
Reexamination of historical narratives to include Native American perspectives
Acknowledgment of the environmental consequences of rapid westward expansion
Discussions of intergenerational trauma and lasting impacts on indigenous communities

Ongoing land disputes

Continued legal battles over treaty rights and land ownership
Conflicts over resource extraction on or near Native American lands (Dakota Access Pipeline)
Efforts to reclaim ancestral territories and sacred sites
Debates over federal recognition and its implications for land rights
Environmental concerns related to land use and preservation of traditional territories

Native American rights movements

Activism for indigenous sovereignty and self-determination
American Indian Movement (AIM) founded in 1968 to address civil rights issues
Push for greater tribal control over education, healthcare, and economic development
Efforts to revitalize Native languages and cultural practices
Advocacy for accurate representation in media, education, and public discourse

Key Terms to Review (32)

Manifest Destiny: Manifest Destiny is the 19th-century doctrine that the expansion of the United States across the American continent was both justified and inevitable. This belief was rooted in a sense of American exceptionalism and a perceived divine right to spread democracy and capitalism, deeply impacting Native American communities and shaping U.S. policy and actions towards them.

Displacement: Displacement refers to the forced removal or relocation of individuals or groups from their homeland, often due to external pressures such as colonization, war, or economic exploitation. This term is crucial in understanding the impact of European expansion and the various historical events that led to the loss of territory, culture, and identity for many indigenous populations.

Trail of Tears: The Trail of Tears refers to the forced relocation of Native American nations from their ancestral homelands in the southeastern United States to designated Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River during the 1830s. This tragic event resulted in immense suffering, loss of life, and has had lasting effects on Native American communities, linking it to broader themes of displacement, cultural identity, and government policies.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February 2, 1848, marking the end of the Mexican-American War and establishing the Rio Grande as the border between Texas and Mexico. This treaty significantly altered the territorial landscape of North America, resulting in Mexico ceding a vast portion of its northern territories to the United States.

Wounded Knee Massacre: The Wounded Knee Massacre was a tragic event that occurred on December 29, 1890, when U.S. Army soldiers killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux men, women, and children at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. This event symbolizes the violent culmination of U.S. government policies against Native Americans and highlights the tensions between Indigenous peoples and the federal government during a period marked by conflict and resistance.

Tribal Sovereignty: Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent authority of Indigenous tribes to govern themselves and make decisions about their own affairs without interference from outside authorities. This concept is deeply rooted in the historical and legal frameworks surrounding Native American communities, influencing their social structures, interactions with colonial powers, and ongoing struggles for rights and recognition.

Plains indian wars: The Plains Indian Wars were a series of conflicts between various Native American tribes and the United States government from the mid-19th century to the late 19th century. These wars arose from increasing westward expansion and the struggle for control over land, resources, and cultural sovereignty, as settlers encroached on traditional territories of the Plains tribes. The conflicts highlighted the broader themes of Manifest Destiny and the devastating impact of U.S. policies on Indigenous communities.

Battle of Little Bighorn: The Battle of Little Bighorn, fought on June 25-26, 1876, was a significant conflict between the United States Army and Native American forces, primarily those of the Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne. This battle is emblematic of the broader conflicts during the westward expansion, highlighting the clash between the ideals of Manifest Destiny and the resistance of Indigenous peoples to encroachment on their lands.

Nez Perce War: The Nez Perce War was a conflict between the Nez Perce tribe and the United States government that took place in 1877, primarily driven by the U.S. government's attempts to force the Nez Perce onto a reservation in Idaho. This war is emblematic of the broader struggles of Native American tribes during the era of expansionism and reflects themes of resistance against encroachment, which can be connected to the concept of Manifest Destiny, the tragic events at Wounded Knee, and various resistance movements that emerged as Indigenous peoples fought to preserve their lands and cultures.

Indian Territory: Indian Territory was a designated region created by the U.S. government in the 19th century to relocate Native American tribes, primarily as part of a broader policy of westward expansion and Manifest Destiny. This area, largely encompassing present-day Oklahoma, served as a refuge for tribes displaced from their ancestral lands due to treaties and forced removals, most notably during the Trail of Tears. The concept of Indian Territory illustrates the intersection of indigenous rights, U.S. territorial ambitions, and the often harsh realities faced by Native peoples during this era.

California Gold Rush: The California Gold Rush was a massive influx of fortune seekers to California following the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in 1848. This event significantly accelerated westward expansion and played a crucial role in the concept of Manifest Destiny, as people believed it was their divine right to expand across the continent. The rush also led to significant social, economic, and political changes, impacting Native American communities through displacement and loss of land.

Oregon Treaty: The Oregon Treaty was an agreement signed in 1846 between the United States and Great Britain that settled the boundary dispute over the Oregon Territory. This treaty established the 49th parallel as the border between British North America and the United States, significantly expanding U.S. territory and solidifying American claims to the Pacific Northwest, embodying the spirit of Manifest Destiny.

Land rights activism: Land rights activism is a movement focused on securing the legal rights and recognition of indigenous peoples to their ancestral lands and territories. This activism challenges historical injustices stemming from colonization, where Native American lands were taken without consent, leading to a struggle for sovereignty, self-determination, and environmental stewardship.

Fifty-four forty or fight: Fifty-four forty or fight was a slogan used in the 1840s by American expansionists advocating for the U.S. claim to the entire Oregon Territory up to the latitude line of 54°40′ north. This term encapsulated the spirit of Manifest Destiny, reflecting the belief that the U.S. was destined to expand its territory across North America. The slogan emphasized a strong stance on territorial claims and highlighted the growing tensions between the United States and Britain over Oregon, ultimately leading to negotiations that settled on the 49th parallel.

Cultural erasure: Cultural erasure refers to the systematic removal or suppression of a group's cultural identity, practices, and heritage, often as a result of colonialism, assimilation policies, and societal neglect. This concept highlights how dominant cultures can impose their values and beliefs on marginalized groups, leading to the loss of languages, traditions, and social structures. It also shows the power dynamics at play in shaping narratives and identities within society.

Forced assimilation: Forced assimilation is a process where individuals or groups are compelled to adopt the customs, culture, language, and values of a dominant society, often leading to the erasure of their original identity. This practice has often been employed by governments or dominant cultures to promote homogeneity and suppress minority cultures. It can manifest through various means, including education, legislation, and social pressures.

Indian Resistance Movements: Indian resistance movements refer to various organized efforts by Native American tribes and individuals to resist the encroachment of European settlers and the U.S. government on their lands, rights, and way of life. These movements often arose in response to policies such as forced removals, land treaties that were not honored, and attempts to assimilate Native peoples into Euro-American culture, highlighting the ongoing struggle for sovereignty and identity.

Homestead Act: The Homestead Act was a significant piece of legislation passed in 1862 that provided 160 acres of public land to settlers in the American West at little or no cost, provided they improved the land by building a dwelling and cultivating crops. This act was a key element of the idea of expanding the United States westward, promoting the concept of Manifest Destiny, and encouraging thousands to migrate and settle in new territories, often displacing Native American tribes and impacting buffalo populations.

James K. Polk: James K. Polk was the 11th President of the United States, serving from 1845 to 1849, and is best known for his role in expanding U.S. territory through the doctrine of Manifest Destiny. His presidency was marked by significant territorial acquisitions, including the annexation of Texas and the Oregon Territory, as well as the Mexican-American War, which further fueled the belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America.

American Exceptionalism: American exceptionalism is the belief that the United States has a unique mission to spread democracy and freedom, distinguishing it from other nations. This concept suggests that America is a beacon of liberty, shaped by its history, values, and institutions, and it implies a sense of superiority over other countries. It often ties into historical events and ideologies, influencing American attitudes towards expansion and intervention.

Expansionism: Expansionism is a policy or ideology that seeks to increase a nation's territory or influence through various means, including military conquest, colonization, and diplomatic agreements. This idea played a significant role in shaping the United States' territorial growth in the 19th century, reflecting the belief that it was America's destiny to expand across the continent.

John L. O'Sullivan: John L. O'Sullivan was a 19th-century journalist and editor who is best known for coining the phrase 'Manifest Destiny' in 1845, which articulated the belief that it was the divine right and destiny of the United States to expand its territory across North America. His ideas played a significant role in promoting American expansionism and shaped public opinion regarding westward expansion, framing it as a noble and inevitable mission.

Mexican-American War: The Mexican-American War was a conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848, primarily driven by the U.S. expansionist ideology known as Manifest Destiny. The war resulted in significant territorial gains for the United States, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Colorado, Utah, and Nevada, fundamentally altering the landscape of North America and intensifying debates over slavery in the newly acquired territories.

Oregon Trail: The Oregon Trail was a historic route used by thousands of American pioneers in the mid-1800s to migrate westward to the Oregon Territory. This 2,170-mile path stretched from Missouri to Oregon City and was crucial in the context of expansionism, illustrating the spirit of Manifest Destiny as settlers sought new opportunities and land in the West.

American Indian Movement: The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a civil rights organization founded in 1968 that seeks to address issues of sovereignty, treaty rights, and cultural preservation for Native Americans. It emerged in response to systemic injustices and discrimination faced by Indigenous peoples, aiming to unite tribes and raise awareness of their struggles against oppression and cultural assimilation.

Five Civilized Tribes: The Five Civilized Tribes refers to five Native American nations—Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole—that were known for adopting various cultural and social practices of European Americans in the early 19th century. These tribes established agricultural economies, built schools, and formed complex governments, which created a dynamic relationship with the United States, particularly in the context of shifting alliances, territorial expansion, forced relocation, and federal policies aimed at Indian removal.

Treaty of Fort Laramie: The Treaty of Fort Laramie, signed in 1851, was an agreement between the United States government and several Native American tribes, establishing territorial boundaries for the tribes and promising protection and annuities in exchange for peace. This treaty represents a crucial moment in U.S. relations with Native American nations, reflecting the complexities of land rights, sovereignty, and the impact of expanding settlements.

Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act of 1830 was a law that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the river. This act was a significant part of a broader policy aimed at clearing lands for European-American settlement, reflecting the belief in Manifest Destiny and the nation's expansionist ambitions.

Oregon Territory: The Oregon Territory was a vast region in the Pacific Northwest, established in the early 19th century, which included present-day Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and parts of Montana and Wyoming. It became a focal point for expansionist desires, particularly as settlers and missionaries moved westward, highlighting themes of progress and opportunity during a time of national growth.

Louisiana Purchase: The Louisiana Purchase was a significant land acquisition in 1803, where the United States acquired approximately 828,000 square miles of territory from France for $15 million. This deal doubled the size of the United States and played a crucial role in its westward expansion and development, impacting various social, political, and economic dynamics within the nation.

Tecumseh's Confederacy: Tecumseh's Confederacy was a coalition of various Native American tribes led by the Shawnee leader Tecumseh in the early 19th century, aimed at resisting the encroachment of American settlers on their lands. This movement sought to unify different tribes to stand against the loss of their territories and promote indigenous sovereignty. Tecumseh envisioned a strong alliance among tribes to prevent further displacement and preserve their cultural heritage, which became increasingly vital during conflicts with expanding American settlers.

Seminole Wars: The Seminole Wars were a series of conflicts in the early 19th century between the United States and the Seminole tribe in Florida, primarily over land disputes and the enforcement of slave laws. These wars highlighted the tensions between Native American rights and U.S. expansionist policies, showcasing the complexities of American Indian resistance against encroaching settlers during a time when Manifest Destiny was gaining momentum.

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