3.7 Shifting alliances

Pre-colonial tribal alliances

Native American tribes formed complex networks of alliances and relationships long before European contact. These alliances shaped political, economic, and social structures across the continent, and understanding them is essential context for everything that came after.

Kinship-based alliance systems

Clan and kinship ties formed the foundation of most tribal alliances. Marriage between tribes cemented political and economic partnerships, while adoption practices expanded kinship networks across tribal boundaries. Among groups like the Crow, Hidatsa, and Mandan, clan systems often transcended individual tribal affiliations, meaning a person's clan identity could connect them to members of entirely different tribes.

Trade networks and partnerships

Extensive trade routes crisscrossed North America long before European arrival. The scale of these networks was remarkable: obsidian quarried in present-day Wyoming has been found at sites in the Ohio Valley, and copper from the Great Lakes region circulated widely across eastern North America.

• Tribes specialized in particular goods to facilitate mutually beneficial exchanges
• Trade partnerships frequently led to military alliances and cultural exchange
• These networks weren't just economic; they were diplomatic infrastructure

Intertribal conflicts and resolutions

Warfare between tribes did occur, but it was often ritualized and limited in scope compared to European-style warfare. Established peace-making ceremonies and protocols existed to resolve conflicts, and neutral tribes often served as mediators in disputes.

Two practices helped manage conflict: adoption of captives into tribes restored population balance after fighting, and ritualized warfare kept violence from escalating to total destruction. That said, some long-standing rivalries persisted for generations, such as those between the Lakota and Crow or the Iroquois and Algonquin peoples.

European arrival and impact

European colonization dramatically altered existing Native American alliances. New trade goods, weapons, and diseases reshaped power dynamics between tribes. Indigenous groups didn't passively accept these changes; they strategically formed alliances with Europeans to gain advantages over rivals and protect their own interests.

Initial indigenous-European alliances

Early alliances were often based on mutual economic benefit. Native Americans provided food, furs, and crucial local knowledge, while Europeans offered metal tools, cloth, and other manufactured goods. The Powhatan Confederacy's initial alliance with Jamestown settlers and Massasoit's alliance with Plymouth Colony are two well-known examples. For the Wampanoag under Massasoit, the English alliance helped ensure their survival against rival tribes like the Narragansett.

Fur trade influence on alliances

The fur trade became one of the most powerful forces reshaping tribal alliances and conflicts. Access to European trade goods incentivized tribes to form new partnerships, and competition for hunting grounds led to increased intertribal warfare.

• Middleman tribes like the Huron and Ottawa gained significant power by controlling trade routes between European posts and interior tribes
• Alliances shifted as tribes sought better trading terms with different European powers
• The economic stakes were high enough to completely redraw the political map of entire regions

Shifting power dynamics

European diseases decimated some tribes, fundamentally altering regional power balances. A tribe that lost half its population to smallpox suddenly found itself vulnerable to neighbors who had been spared. Access to firearms changed military capabilities in similar ways: allied tribes with guns held enormous advantages over those without.

Tribes migrated and consolidated in response to these pressures. Traditional enemies sometimes allied against common European threats, while other tribes leveraged European alliances to dominate rivals. The Iroquois expansion of the mid-1600s is a prime example: armed with Dutch and later English firearms, the Iroquois Confederacy waged devastating campaigns against Huron, Erie, and other neighboring peoples.

Colonial era alliances

Colonial powers competed aggressively for Native American alliances to gain strategic advantages in North America. Indigenous groups navigated this complex diplomatic landscape to preserve their autonomy, playing European rivals against each other when possible. As European settlement expanded, these alliances became increasingly crucial for tribal survival.

French and Indian alliances

France cultivated an extensive alliance network with Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley tribes. The Algonquin, Huron, and Illinois were among key French allies, gaining access to trade goods and military support in return.

French-Native alliances tended to involve more cultural exchange and intermarriage than British ones. French traders and missionaries often lived among tribes, and the French generally demanded less land than the English. During the French and Indian War (1754–1763), many of these allied tribes fought alongside French forces, viewing a French victory as their best chance to halt British colonial expansion.

British-indigenous partnerships

The British formed alliances with both coastal tribes and interior groups. The Iroquois Confederacy became Britain's most crucial ally in the northeast, while Creek and Cherokee alliances gave the British influence in the southeast.

• British fur trade companies, particularly the Hudson's Bay Company, built extensive tribal partnerships across northern North America
• The British generally offered better trade goods at lower prices than the French
• After France's defeat in 1763, Pontiac's Rebellion revealed how quickly British-indigenous relations could deteriorate when tribes lost the ability to play European powers against each other

Spanish-Native American relations

Spanish colonialism in the Southwest and California created a different pattern of alliances. The mission system drew some Pueblo peoples into cooperation with Spanish authorities, though the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 showed that resistance was always possible.

Apache and Comanche raiding forced the Spanish to ally with certain tribes for mutual protection. Meanwhile, the Spanish horse trade transformed tribal economies and military capabilities across the Great Plains, enabling groups like the Comanche to build powerful mounted empires.

American Revolution period

The American Revolution forced Native American tribes to choose sides or attempt neutrality. The alliances made during this period had long-lasting consequences for tribal sovereignty. For most tribes, the central question was which side posed a greater threat to their lands.

Iroquois Confederacy alliances

The Revolution split the Iroquois Confederacy in a way that permanently weakened it. The Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga generally sided with the British, while the Oneida and Tuscarora allied with the American revolutionaries.

This internal division shattered the Confederacy's longstanding tradition of consensus decision-making. After the war, both pro-British and pro-American Iroquois nations suffered land cessions and forced relocation, a bitter outcome that demonstrated how little either side valued its Native allies once the fighting ended.

Pro-British Native American groups

Many tribes viewed the British as the lesser evil compared to land-hungry American colonists. The British had, after all, issued the Proclamation of 1763 promising to limit colonial expansion beyond the Appalachian Mountains.

• Shawnee, Miami, and Delaware formed the core of a pro-British alliance in the Ohio Valley
• Creek and Chickasaw in the Southeast generally supported the British cause
• Joseph Brant (Thayendanegea) led Mohawk and other Iroquois forces allied with Britain, conducting devastating raids along the New York and Pennsylvania frontier

Pro-American indigenous allies

Some tribes saw opportunity in allying with the revolutionaries. The Stockbridge Mohican fought alongside the Continental Army in several battles, and the Catawba Nation in South Carolina provided scouts and warriors to the American cause.

Oneida and Tuscarora aid proved crucial at the Battle of Oriskany (1777), one of the bloodiest engagements of the war. Pro-American tribes generally hoped that supporting independence would lead to protection of their land rights in the new United States. Those hopes went largely unfulfilled.

Post-revolution realignments

American victory forced tribes across the continent to reconsider their alliances and strategies. The United States government became the dominant power in tribal relations, and some tribes sought new alliances to resist American expansion while others tried to negotiate the best terms they could.

Treaty-making and broken promises

The U.S. government initiated numerous treaties with Native American tribes, typically promising land rights and autonomy in exchange for peace and territorial cessions. The Treaty of Greenville (1795) attempted to establish a clear boundary between American settlement and tribal lands in the Ohio Valley.

The pattern that emerged was consistent: treaties were signed, settlers violated them, and the government either looked the other way or renegotiated terms that favored American expansion. Tribes became increasingly skeptical of treaty promises as violations became routine.

Tecumseh's pan-Indian alliance

Shawnee leader Tecumseh mounted the most ambitious attempt to unite tribes against American expansion in the early 1800s. His alliance included tribes from the Great Lakes to the Deep South, and he promoted the idea of a common Native American identity that transcended tribal differences.

Tecumseh argued that no single tribe had the right to sell land, since the land belonged to all Native peoples collectively. He sought British support from Canada to resist American encroachment. His death at the Battle of the Thames (1813) effectively ended the pan-Indian alliance and removed the last major organized resistance to American expansion east of the Mississippi.

Divide and conquer strategies

The U.S. government systematically exploited tribal rivalries to weaken Native American resistance.

• Treaties often favored certain tribes over others to create divisions
• American agents encouraged intertribal conflicts to distract from settler encroachment
• Some tribes allied with Americans against traditional rivals (Pawnee scouts served against the Sioux, for example)
• These tactics undermined the potential for unified Native American resistance that leaders like Tecumseh had envisioned

Removal era alliances

Indian Removal policies of the early 19th century forced tribes to form new alliances under desperate circumstances. Resistance to removal led to both intertribal cooperation and internal conflict, as tribes debated whether to fight, negotiate, or comply.

Five Civilized Tribes vs. U.S.

The Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole were labeled the "Five Civilized Tribes" by Americans because they had adopted aspects of European-American culture, including written constitutions, plantation agriculture, and Christianity. They pursued this strategy partly to demonstrate that they could coexist with American society and thereby resist removal.

The Cherokee mounted the most notable legal challenge, taking their case to the Supreme Court. In Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the Court ruled in the Cherokee's favor, affirming tribal sovereignty. President Andrew Jackson refused to enforce the decision. Despite legal victories and inter-tribal diplomacy aimed at presenting a united front, all five tribes were eventually forced to relocate to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma).

Inter-tribal cooperation during removal

Tribes shared information and resources to survive forced relocation. Creek and Cherokee cooperated during parts of their removal journeys, and Seminole resistance in Florida received support from runaway enslaved people and members of other tribes.

Once relocated to Indian Territory, tribes formed new alliances for mutual protection. Inter-tribal councils attempted to create unified governance structures, recognizing that cooperation was essential for survival in unfamiliar territory surrounded by potentially hostile neighbors.

Alliances with frontier settlers

Some tribes and tribal factions formed alliances with frontier settlers to resist or negotiate removal. The Cherokee "Treaty Party," led by Major Ridge and his family, sought compromise with the U.S. government, believing removal was inevitable and that negotiating favorable terms was the best option.

Mixed-blood leaders often acted as intermediaries between tribes and settlers. Some Choctaw and Chickasaw individuals remained in their ancestral lands through alliances with local white communities. These alliances frequently created deep internal tribal divisions: the Treaty Party's leaders were assassinated by other Cherokee after removal, reflecting the bitterness these choices produced.

Plains Wars period

Westward expansion after the Civil War brought the U.S. military into direct conflict with Plains tribes. Intertribal alliances formed to resist encroachment on hunting grounds, while the U.S. military employed strategies designed to fracture Native resistance.

Intertribal alliances against expansion

The Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho formed an alliance to protect the Black Hills and surrounding territory. Cooperation between these tribes proved crucial in victories like the Battle of the Little Bighorn (1876), where a combined force of Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors defeated Lt. Col. George Custer's 7th Cavalry.

• The Nez Perce sought alliances with other tribes during their famous 1877 flight toward Canada
• Comanche and Kiowa allied to resist reservation policies on the Southern Plains
• These intertribal alliances were often temporary and fragile, since traditional rivalries didn't disappear just because tribes faced a common enemy

U.S. military divide-and-conquer tactics

The Army systematically exploited tribal rivalries to weaken resistance. Crow and Pawnee scouts were employed against the Sioux and Cheyenne, tribes they had long-standing conflicts with. The military used promises of protection from traditional enemies to entice tribes onto reservations, and selective peace treaties isolated militant factions within tribes. Disrupting intertribal trade and communication networks further weakened alliances.

Native scouts and U.S. Army cooperation

Some tribes allied with the U.S. military specifically to gain advantages against traditional enemies.

• Crow scouts played a crucial role in campaigns against the Sioux, including at Little Bighorn itself
• Apache scouts helped track Geronimo's band during the final Apache Wars
• Pawnee Scouts served the U.S. Army in numerous campaigns on the Central Plains

These scouts were typically motivated by tribal rivalries rather than loyalty to the United States. The Crow, for instance, saw the Sioux as a greater immediate threat to their homeland than the U.S. Army.

Reservation era shifts

Confinement to reservations forced tribes to fundamentally adapt their alliance strategies. With military resistance no longer viable, new pan-Indian movements emerged to address shared challenges through political and cultural organizing. Internal tribal divisions also arose over how to relate to the U.S. government and American society.

Pan-Indian movements and alliances

As tribes were confined to reservations, movements that crossed tribal boundaries gained strength.

• The Native American Church spread across tribal lines, blending Christian and indigenous spiritual practices and promoting cultural revival
• The Indian Rights Association advocated for Native issues across tribal boundaries
• The Society of American Indians (founded 1911) became the first national pan-Indian organization led entirely by Native Americans
• The National Congress of American Indians (founded 1944) represented multiple tribes and became a powerful lobbying force

These pan-Indian alliances challenged U.S. attempts to deal with tribes individually, recognizing that collective action carried more political weight.

Ghost Dance as unifying force

The Ghost Dance religion spread rapidly across Western tribes in 1889–1890. Originating with the Paiute prophet Wovoka, it promised the restoration of traditional lifeways and the disappearance of white settlers. The movement unified previously hostile tribes, bringing together Lakota and Cheyenne in a common spiritual cause.

The U.S. government feared the Ghost Dance as a catalyst for rebellion. Attempts to suppress the movement led directly to the Wounded Knee Massacre (December 1890), where U.S. soldiers killed approximately 250–300 Lakota men, women, and children. Wounded Knee became a lasting symbol of U.S. violence against Native peoples.

Tribal divisions over assimilation

Reservation life created sharp internal divisions within tribes over how to respond to American pressure.

• Some tribal members advocated adapting to American society as a survival strategy
• Others insisted on maintaining traditional cultures and resisting assimilation
• "Progressive" factions across different tribes sometimes allied with each other
• Traditional leaders allied to resist allotment policies and boarding schools
• These divisions often reflected generational and educational differences, with boarding school graduates more likely to favor adaptation

20th century developments

The 20th century brought new challenges and opportunities that reshaped tribal alliances. Citizenship, two world wars, and the civil rights movement all created new contexts for inter-tribal cooperation, while tribal sovereignty movements pushed back against federal control.

Native American citizenship impact

The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born in the United States. This created new avenues for political alliances and advocacy, though some tribes feared citizenship would undermine tribal sovereignty by treating Native people as individuals rather than members of sovereign nations.

Federal urban relocation programs in the 1950s moved thousands of Native Americans to cities like Chicago, Los Angeles, and Minneapolis. These programs, intended to assimilate Native people, had an unintended effect: they created new inter-tribal communities where members of dozens of different tribes lived side by side, building relationships that fueled later activism.

World War participation effects

Native Americans served in both World Wars at rates higher than the general population. Military service created new bonds between members of different tribes who might never have met otherwise.

• Code Talkers from the Navajo, Comanche, and Choctaw nations used their languages to create unbreakable military codes, forming unique wartime alliances with the U.S. military
• Exposure to global conflicts broadened the perspective of many Native veterans
• Post-war GI Bill benefits led to increased Native education and, eventually, greater activism
• Veterans returned home with military training, organizational skills, and less willingness to accept second-class treatment

Red Power movement alliances

The civil rights era inspired new forms of Native American activism built on inter-tribal alliances.

• The American Indian Movement (AIM), founded in 1968, united activists from multiple tribes
• The Occupation of Alcatraz (1969–1971) involved Native people from many different tribes claiming the island under an old treaty provision
• The Trail of Broken Treaties (1972) brought tribal delegations from across the country to Washington, D.C.
• Inter-tribal alliances proved crucial in the passage of the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act (1975), which gave tribes greater control over federal programs on their reservations

Contemporary tribal alliances

Modern inter-tribal cooperation takes many forms, driven by economic development, environmental protection, and cultural preservation. Tribal sovereignty remains the central concern in contemporary alliance-building, as tribes work together to protect their rights and resources.

Inter-tribal economic partnerships

• Tribal casinos have led to revenue-sharing agreements between some tribes
• Inter-tribal business councils promote economic cooperation across reservation boundaries
• Some tribes jointly invest in off-reservation businesses and real estate
• Tribal colleges form alliances to share resources and advocate for federal funding
• Energy development on tribal lands has created partnerships between tribes and, in some cases, with corporations

Environmental protection coalitions

Environmental issues have become one of the strongest drivers of modern inter-tribal alliances. The Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission brings together tribes to protect shared salmon fisheries. The 2016 Standing Rock Sioux protest against the Dakota Access Pipeline drew support from over 300 tribes, making it one of the largest inter-tribal gatherings in modern history.

• Climate change concerns unite coastal and Arctic tribes in advocacy efforts
• The Intertribal Timber Council promotes sustainable forestry on Native lands
• Sacred site protection often involves coalitions of multiple tribes, since sacred landscapes frequently cross reservation boundaries

Cultural preservation collaborations

Inter-tribal language preservation efforts allow tribes to share resources and techniques for revitalizing endangered languages. Museum partnerships enable tribes to collectively manage and repatriate cultural items, and pan-tribal powwows and cultural festivals promote shared heritage while celebrating individual tribal traditions.

The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), passed in 1990, requires federal agencies and institutions to return cultural items to tribes. Its implementation often involves inter-tribal cooperation, as does the growing movement to create digital archives and oral history projects that preserve knowledge for future generations.