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Native American History
Table of Contents
Unit 3 Overview: Native American Alliances in Colonial Era
3.1 French and Indian War
3.2 Pontiac's Rebellion
3.3 American Revolution and Native American involvement
3.4 Iroquois Confederacy
3.5 Trade relationships
3.6 Land treaties
3.7 Shifting alliances
3.8 Impact of European settlements

Native American tribes formed complex alliances long before European contact, shaping political and economic structures across the continent. These pre-colonial networks, based on kinship, trade, and conflict resolution, laid the groundwork for future relationships.

European arrival dramatically altered existing alliances. Tribes strategically partnered with colonial powers for trade and military advantages, while also navigating new conflicts. These shifting dynamics would have lasting impacts on tribal sovereignty and survival.

Pre-colonial tribal alliances

  • Native American tribes formed complex networks of alliances and relationships long before European contact
  • These alliances shaped political, economic, and social structures across indigenous North America
  • Understanding pre-colonial alliances provides crucial context for later shifts in tribal relationships

Kinship-based alliance systems

  • Clan and kinship ties formed the foundation of many tribal alliances
  • Marriage between tribes cemented political and economic partnerships
  • Adoption practices expanded kinship networks across tribal boundaries
  • Clan systems often transcended individual tribal affiliations (Crow, Hidatsa, Mandan)

Trade networks and partnerships

  • Extensive trade routes crisscrossed North America before European arrival
  • Obsidian from Wyoming found in Ohio Valley demonstrates long-distance trade
  • Copper from Great Lakes region traded widely across eastern North America
  • Tribes specialized in certain goods to facilitate mutually beneficial exchanges
  • Trade partnerships often led to military alliances and cultural exchange

Intertribal conflicts and resolutions

  • Warfare between tribes occurred but was often ritualized and limited in scope
  • Peace-making ceremonies and protocols existed to resolve conflicts
  • Neutral tribes often served as mediators in disputes
  • Adoption of captives into tribes helped restore balance after conflicts
  • Some long-standing rivalries persisted (Lakota-Crow, Iroquois-Algonquin)

European arrival and impact

  • European colonization dramatically altered existing Native American alliances
  • New trade goods, weapons, and diseases reshaped power dynamics between tribes
  • Indigenous groups strategically formed alliances with Europeans to gain advantages

Initial indigenous-European alliances

  • Early alliances often based on mutual economic benefit through trade
  • Native Americans provided food, furs, and local knowledge to Europeans
  • Europeans offered metal tools, cloth, and other manufactured goods
  • Powhatan Confederacy's initial alliance with Jamestown settlers
  • Massasoit's alliance with Plymouth Colony ensured Wampanoag survival

Fur trade influence on alliances

  • Fur trade became a major factor in shaping tribal alliances and conflicts
  • Access to European trade goods incentivized tribes to form new partnerships
  • Competition for hunting grounds led to increased intertribal warfare
  • Middleman tribes (Huron, Ottawa) gained power through control of trade routes
  • Alliances shifted as tribes sought better trading terms with different European powers

Shifting power dynamics

  • European diseases decimated some tribes, altering regional power balances
  • Access to firearms changed military capabilities of allied tribes
  • Tribes migrated and consolidated in response to European pressures
  • Traditional enemies sometimes allied against common European threats
  • Some tribes leveraged European alliances to dominate rivals (Iroquois expansion)

Colonial era alliances

  • Colonial powers competed for Native American alliances to gain strategic advantages
  • Indigenous groups navigated complex diplomatic landscape to preserve autonomy
  • Alliances became increasingly crucial for tribal survival as European settlement expanded

French and Indian alliances

  • French cultivated extensive alliance network with Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley tribes
  • Algonquin, Huron, and Illinois among key French allies
  • French-allied tribes gained access to trade goods and military support
  • Cultural exchange and intermarriage more common in French-Native alliances
  • French and Indian War (1754-1763) saw many tribes fight alongside French forces

British-indigenous partnerships

  • British formed alliances with coastal tribes and interior groups
  • Iroquois Confederacy became a crucial British ally in northeast
  • Creek and Cherokee alliances gave British influence in southeast
  • British fur trade companies (Hudson's Bay Company) built extensive tribal partnerships
  • Pontiac's Rebellion (1763) strained British-indigenous relations after French defeat

Spanish-Native American relations

  • Spanish missions in Southwest and California created complex alliance systems
  • Pueblo peoples alternated between alliance and resistance to Spanish rule
  • Apache and Comanche raiding forced Spanish to ally with some tribes for protection
  • Spanish slavers disrupted tribal alliances in Southeast and Great Plains
  • Horse trade transformed tribal economies and military capabilities

American Revolution period

  • American Revolution forced Native American tribes to choose sides or attempt neutrality
  • Alliances made during this period had long-lasting consequences for tribal sovereignty
  • Revolutionary conflict often exacerbated existing intertribal rivalries

Iroquois Confederacy alliances

  • Iroquois Confederacy split over which side to support in the conflict
  • Mohawk, Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga generally sided with British
  • Oneida and Tuscarora allied with American revolutionaries
  • Internal division weakened the once-powerful Iroquois Confederacy
  • Post-war land cessions and forced relocation resulted from these alliances

Pro-British Native American groups

  • Many tribes viewed British as lesser evil compared to land-hungry colonists
  • Shawnee, Miami, and Delaware formed core of pro-British alliance in Ohio Valley
  • Creek and Chickasaw in Southeast generally supported British cause
  • British promised to limit colonial expansion beyond Appalachian Mountains
  • Joseph Brant led Mohawk and other Iroquois forces allied with British

Pro-American indigenous allies

  • Some tribes saw opportunity in allying with revolutionaries
  • Stockbridge Mohican fought alongside Continental Army in several battles
  • Catawba Nation in South Carolina provided scouts and warriors to American cause
  • Oneida and Tuscarora aid crucial to American victory at Battle of Oriskany
  • Pro-American tribes often hoped for protection of land rights in independent United States

Post-revolution realignments

  • American victory forced tribes to reconsider alliances and strategies
  • United States government became dominant power in tribal relations
  • Some tribes sought new alliances to resist American expansion

Treaty-making and broken promises

  • U.S. government initiated numerous treaties with Native American tribes
  • Treaties often promised land rights and autonomy in exchange for peace
  • Many treaties broken or ignored as American settlers pushed westward
  • Treaty of Greenville (1795) attempted to establish clear boundary with tribes
  • Tribes increasingly skeptical of treaty promises as violations became routine

Tecumseh's pan-Indian alliance

  • Shawnee leader Tecumseh attempted to unite tribes against American expansion
  • Alliance included tribes from Great Lakes to Deep South
  • Promoted idea of common Native American identity transcending tribal differences
  • Sought British support to resist American encroachment
  • Tecumseh's death and defeat at Battle of Thames (1813) ended pan-Indian alliance

Divide and conquer strategies

  • U.S. government exploited tribal rivalries to weaken Native American resistance
  • Treaties often favored certain tribes over others to create divisions
  • American agents encouraged intertribal conflicts to distract from settler encroachment
  • Some tribes allied with Americans against traditional rivals (Pawnee scouts against Sioux)
  • Divide and conquer tactics undermined potential for unified Native American resistance

Removal era alliances

  • Indian Removal policies of early 19th century forced tribes to form new alliances
  • Resistance to removal led to both intertribal cooperation and conflict
  • Some tribes sought alliances with settlers to avoid forced relocation

Five Civilized Tribes vs U.S.

  • Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole labeled "Five Civilized Tribes"
  • These tribes adopted aspects of European-American culture to resist removal
  • Cherokee legal challenges to removal reached Supreme Court (Worcester v. Georgia)
  • Inter-tribal diplomacy attempted to present united front against removal policies
  • Despite efforts, all five tribes eventually forced to relocate to Indian Territory

Inter-tribal cooperation during removal

  • Tribes shared information and resources to survive forced relocation
  • Creek and Cherokee cooperated during parts of their removal journeys
  • Seminole resistance in Florida supported by runaway slaves and other tribes
  • Relocated tribes in Indian Territory formed new alliances for mutual protection
  • Inter-tribal councils in Indian Territory attempted to create unified governance

Alliances with frontier settlers

  • Some tribes formed alliances with frontier settlers to resist removal
  • Cherokee "Treaty Party" sought compromise with U.S. government
  • Mixed-blood leaders often acted as intermediaries between tribes and settlers
  • Some Choctaw and Chickasaw remained in ancestral lands through alliances with local whites
  • These alliances often created internal tribal divisions and conflicts

Plains Wars period

  • Westward expansion led to conflicts between Plains tribes and U.S. government
  • Intertribal alliances formed to resist encroachment on hunting grounds
  • U.S. military employed various strategies to defeat Native American resistance

Intertribal alliances against expansion

  • Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho formed alliance to protect Black Hills
  • Cooperation between these tribes crucial in victories like Little Bighorn (1876)
  • Nez Perce sought alliances with other tribes during their 1877 flight
  • Comanche and Kiowa allied to resist reservation policies in Southern Plains
  • Intertribal alliances often temporary and fragile due to traditional rivalries

U.S. military divide-and-conquer tactics

  • Army exploited tribal rivalries to weaken resistance
  • Crow and Pawnee scouts employed against Sioux and Cheyenne
  • Promise of protection from enemies used to entice tribes onto reservations
  • Selective peace treaties isolated militant factions within tribes
  • Disruption of intertribal trade and communication networks weakened alliances

Native scouts and U.S. Army cooperation

  • Some tribes allied with U.S. military against traditional enemies
  • Crow scouts played crucial role in campaigns against Sioux
  • Apache scouts helped track Geronimo's band in final Apache Wars
  • Pawnee Scouts served U.S. Army in numerous campaigns on Central Plains
  • Native scouts often motivated by tribal rivalries rather than loyalty to U.S.

Reservation era shifts

  • Confinement to reservations forced tribes to adapt alliance strategies
  • New pan-Indian movements emerged to address shared challenges
  • Internal tribal divisions arose over how to relate to U.S. government and society

Pan-Indian movements and alliances

  • Native American Church spread across tribal lines, promoting cultural revival
  • Indian Rights Association advocated for Native issues across tribal boundaries
  • Society of American Indians formed as first national pan-Indian organization
  • National Congress of American Indians (founded 1944) represented multiple tribes
  • Pan-Indian alliances challenged U.S. attempts to deal with tribes individually

Ghost Dance as unifying force

  • Ghost Dance religion spread rapidly across Western tribes in 1889-1890
  • Promised restoration of traditional lifeways and disappearance of whites
  • Unified previously hostile tribes (Lakota and Cheyenne) in common cause
  • U.S. government feared Ghost Dance as catalyst for rebellion
  • Wounded Knee Massacre (1890) resulted from tensions over Ghost Dance

Tribal divisions over assimilation

  • Some tribal members advocated adaptation to American society
  • Others insisted on maintaining traditional cultures and resisting assimilation
  • Alliances formed between "progressives" across tribal lines
  • Traditional leaders sometimes allied to resist allotment and boarding schools
  • These divisions often reflected generational and educational differences within tribes

20th century developments

  • Native American tribes faced new challenges and opportunities in 20th century
  • Citizenship, world wars, and civil rights movement reshaped tribal alliances
  • New forms of pan-Indian cooperation emerged alongside tribal sovereignty movements

Native American citizenship impact

  • Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans
  • Citizenship created new avenues for political alliances and advocacy
  • Some tribes feared citizenship would undermine tribal sovereignty
  • Urban relocation programs led to new inter-tribal communities in cities
  • Native American voters became important constituency in some states

World War participation effects

  • Native Americans served in high numbers in both World Wars
  • Military service created new bonds between members of different tribes
  • Exposure to global conflicts broadened perspective of many Native veterans
  • Code Talkers (Navajo, Comanche, Choctaw) formed unique wartime alliances
  • Post-war benefits and GI Bill led to increased Native education and activism

Red Power movement alliances

  • Civil Rights era inspired new forms of Native American activism
  • American Indian Movement (AIM) united activists from multiple tribes
  • Occupation of Alcatraz (1969-1971) involved Native people from many tribes
  • Trail of Broken Treaties (1972) brought tribal delegations to Washington D.C.
  • Inter-tribal alliances crucial in passage of Indian Self-Determination Act (1975)

Contemporary tribal alliances

  • Modern era has seen new forms of inter-tribal cooperation and alliance
  • Economic development, environmental issues, and cultural preservation drive many alliances
  • Tribal sovereignty remains central concern in contemporary alliance-building

Inter-tribal economic partnerships

  • Tribal casinos have led to revenue-sharing agreements between some tribes
  • Inter-tribal business councils promote economic cooperation
  • Some tribes jointly invest in off-reservation businesses and real estate
  • Tribal colleges form alliances to share resources and advocate for funding
  • Energy development on tribal lands has led to partnerships between tribes and corporations

Environmental protection coalitions

  • Tribes ally to protect shared water resources (Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission)
  • Inter-tribal alliances oppose pipeline projects (Standing Rock Sioux protest against Dakota Access Pipeline)
  • Climate change concerns unite coastal and Arctic tribes in advocacy efforts
  • Intertribal Timber Council promotes sustainable forestry on Native lands
  • Sacred site protection often involves coalitions of multiple tribes

Cultural preservation collaborations

  • Inter-tribal language preservation efforts share resources and techniques
  • Museum partnerships allow tribes to collectively manage and repatriate cultural items
  • Pan-tribal powwows and cultural festivals promote shared heritage
  • Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) implementation involves inter-tribal cooperation
  • Digital archives and oral history projects often involve multiple tribes

Key Terms to Review (31)

Treaty of Greenville: The Treaty of Greenville was signed in 1795 between the United States and a coalition of Native American tribes in the Great Lakes region, marking a significant turning point in Native American relations with the federal government. This treaty ended the Northwest Indian War and established a boundary line between Native American lands and territory open to American settlers, highlighting the ongoing struggle over land and sovereignty.
Pan-Indianism: Pan-Indianism is a social and political movement that seeks to unify various Native American tribes and cultures to promote common interests and identity, emphasizing shared experiences and struggles against colonialism and oppression. This movement has played a crucial role in addressing issues faced by Native peoples, fostering collaboration and solidarity across tribal lines, especially in response to historical injustices.
Sioux: The Sioux are a group of Native American tribes that are part of the Great Plains cultural area, known for their rich traditions, warrior culture, and resistance against European colonization. Historically, they were divided into three major divisions: the Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota, each with its own distinct dialect and customs, which played a crucial role in their social structure and interactions with other tribes and settlers.
Sitting Bull: Sitting Bull was a prominent Lakota Sioux leader and medicine man known for his role in resisting U.S. government policies and his leadership during the Plains Indian Wars. He became a symbol of Native American resistance against the encroachment of settlers and the U.S. military, especially during pivotal events like the Battle of Little Bighorn.
Massasoit: Massasoit was the leader of the Wampanoag Confederacy during the early 17th century, recognized for his role in establishing peaceful relations with the English settlers in Plymouth Colony. His diplomacy and alliance with the Pilgrims were crucial for their survival during the harsh early years of colonization, illustrating the complexities of early English colonization and shifting alliances between Native American tribes and European settlers.
Powhatan Confederacy: The Powhatan Confederacy was a powerful alliance of Algonquian-speaking Native American tribes in the early 17th century, primarily located in what is now Virginia. This confederation, led by Chief Powhatan, played a critical role in the early interactions between Native Americans and English settlers, particularly during the establishment of Jamestown in 1607.
Trade networks: Trade networks refer to the interconnected systems through which goods, services, and resources are exchanged between different communities or regions. These networks played a crucial role in shaping social structures, technological advancements, and economic interactions, especially during periods of exploration and colonization when new alliances were formed and traditional relationships were altered.
Confederacies: Confederacies are alliances formed between multiple groups, typically tribes or nations, for mutual benefit, protection, or cooperation in certain activities. These alliances often involve shared governance or joint decision-making, allowing for coordinated responses to external threats and collective bargaining in trade or diplomacy. Confederacies are significant in understanding social structures and the dynamics of shifting alliances among Indigenous peoples.
Displacement: Displacement refers to the forced removal or relocation of individuals or groups from their homeland, often due to external pressures such as colonization, war, or economic exploitation. This term is crucial in understanding the impact of European expansion and the various historical events that led to the loss of territory, culture, and identity for many indigenous populations.
Tecumseh: Tecumseh was a prominent Shawnee leader and warrior who played a crucial role in advocating for Native American unity against the encroachment of European settlers in the early 19th century. His efforts to create a confederation of tribes to resist U.S. expansion connected deeply with the social structures, cultural exchanges, and conflicts of his time.
Tribal Sovereignty: Tribal sovereignty refers to the inherent authority of Indigenous tribes to govern themselves and make decisions about their own affairs without interference from outside authorities. This concept is deeply rooted in the historical and legal frameworks surrounding Native American communities, influencing their social structures, interactions with colonial powers, and ongoing struggles for rights and recognition.
Standing Rock Sioux: The Standing Rock Sioux Tribe is a federally recognized Native American tribe located in North and South Dakota, known for its efforts to protect its land and water rights, particularly during the Dakota Access Pipeline protests in 2016. This tribe represents a significant example of indigenous activism and shifting alliances among Native American groups and their supporters in response to environmental and social justice issues.
American Indian Movement: The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a civil rights organization founded in 1968 that seeks to address issues of sovereignty, treaty rights, and cultural preservation for Native Americans. It emerged in response to systemic injustices and discrimination faced by Indigenous peoples, aiming to unite tribes and raise awareness of their struggles against oppression and cultural assimilation.
Indian Citizenship Act of 1924: The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans born in the United States. This landmark legislation aimed to recognize Native Americans as citizens, which was a significant step toward inclusion and rights, though it did not automatically guarantee them voting rights or full participation in society. The act reflects the changing dynamics of alliances and relationships between the U.S. government and Native American tribes during this period.
Ghost Dance: The Ghost Dance was a spiritual movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century that aimed to restore traditional ways of life and bring about a renewal of their culture, ultimately seeking to end the suffering caused by colonization. It emerged as a response to oppression, promoting hope for a future where Native Americans could live in harmony with their ancestors and regain control over their lands.
Worcester v. Georgia: Worcester v. Georgia was a landmark Supreme Court case in 1832 that ruled that the state of Georgia could not impose its laws within the boundaries of the Cherokee Nation, asserting that only the federal government had authority over Native American lands. This case highlighted the ongoing struggle between state and federal powers regarding Native American sovereignty and rights.
Five Civilized Tribes: The Five Civilized Tribes refers to five Native American nations—Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek (Muscogee), and Seminole—that were known for adopting various cultural and social practices of European Americans in the early 19th century. These tribes established agricultural economies, built schools, and formed complex governments, which created a dynamic relationship with the United States, particularly in the context of shifting alliances, territorial expansion, forced relocation, and federal policies aimed at Indian removal.
Territorial loss: Territorial loss refers to the reduction of land or territory that a group, particularly a nation or a people, possesses. This concept is crucial in understanding the historical dynamics of power and control, especially in the context of shifting alliances where relationships among different groups can lead to significant changes in territorial claims. The loss of territory often results from conflicts, treaties, or shifts in political power, reflecting the broader geopolitical landscape.
Cultural erosion: Cultural erosion refers to the gradual loss or dilution of a community's cultural practices, beliefs, languages, and traditions, often as a result of external influences such as colonization, globalization, or assimilation. This phenomenon can lead to a decline in cultural identity and community cohesion, impacting the way groups interact with their heritage and history. Cultural erosion is particularly significant in the context of Indigenous populations, where historical events have often forced changes in social structures and cultural expressions.
Cherokee: The Cherokee are one of the largest Native American tribes in the United States, originally inhabiting areas of the Southeastern United States, particularly parts of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee. Their history is marked by significant events such as shifting alliances with other tribes and European settlers, forced relocation, and efforts to maintain their cultural identity despite outside pressures.
Assimilation: Assimilation is the process through which individuals or groups adopt the cultural norms of another group, often resulting in the loss of their original cultural identity. In the context of Native American history, this term highlights the forced efforts by the U.S. government and society to integrate Native peoples into Euro-American culture, often at great personal and societal cost. This phenomenon led to significant shifts in alliances among tribes, tragic events like forced relocations, changes in land ownership practices, and widespread corruption among those responsible for implementing these policies.
Colonial Era: The Colonial Era refers to the period in history when European powers established colonies in the Americas, primarily from the late 15th century to the early 19th century. During this time, various Indigenous nations faced significant shifts in their political and social structures due to European expansion and colonization. This era was characterized by complex relationships, both adversarial and cooperative, between Indigenous peoples and European settlers, leading to evolving alliances and conflicts.
Battle of the Little Bighorn: The Battle of the Little Bighorn, fought on June 25-26, 1876, was a significant conflict between the U.S. Army, led by Lieutenant Colonel George Custer, and a coalition of Native American tribes, primarily Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne. This battle marked a pivotal moment in the ongoing struggle over land and sovereignty, reflecting the shifting alliances among Native tribes as they united against encroaching settlers and U.S. military forces.
Westward expansion: Westward expansion refers to the 19th-century movement of settlers into the American West, driven by the belief in Manifest Destiny, the idea that Americans were destined to expand across the continent. This expansion had profound effects on various aspects of life in America, including trade relationships, land treaties, alliances among Indigenous peoples, and tragic events like the Trail of Tears.
Dawes Act: The Dawes Act, enacted in 1887, aimed to assimilate Native Americans into American society by allotting them individual plots of land and granting them U.S. citizenship. This legislation significantly altered the land ownership system for Native Americans and sought to eradicate tribal communal living, promoting individual land ownership as a path to integration into mainstream American culture.
Treaty of Fort Laramie: The Treaty of Fort Laramie, signed in 1851, was an agreement between the United States government and several Native American tribes, establishing territorial boundaries for the tribes and promising protection and annuities in exchange for peace. This treaty represents a crucial moment in U.S. relations with Native American nations, reflecting the complexities of land rights, sovereignty, and the impact of expanding settlements.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act of 1830 was a law that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the river. This act was a significant part of a broader policy aimed at clearing lands for European-American settlement, reflecting the belief in Manifest Destiny and the nation's expansionist ambitions.
Iroquois: The Iroquois, also known as the Haudenosaunee, are a confederation of six Native American nations in North America, including the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, and Tuscarora. Known for their sophisticated political structure and agricultural practices, they played a crucial role in shaping the interactions between Native Americans and European settlers during the early periods of contact and colonization.
Joseph Brant: Joseph Brant was a prominent Mohawk leader and military figure during the 18th century, known for his role as a British military officer during the French and Indian War and the American Revolution. He played a critical role in uniting various Native American tribes in support of British interests, significantly influencing the dynamics of Native American involvement in colonial conflicts and shifting alliances between tribes and European powers.
French and Indian War: The French and Indian War was a conflict between Britain and France in North America from 1754 to 1763, primarily over territorial disputes in the Ohio River Valley. This war marked a significant turning point in colonial relations, leading to shifting alliances and shaping the future of European settlements in North America, particularly affecting Native American tribes who played crucial roles in the conflict.
Geronimo: Geronimo was a prominent leader of the Apache tribe known for his resistance against Mexican and American expansion into Apache territory during the late 19th century. He became a symbol of Native American courage and determination as he led numerous raids and escaped from captivity multiple times, highlighting the struggles faced by indigenous peoples during a period of intense conflict and cultural upheaval.