The Battle of Little Bighorn was a pivotal conflict between the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and U.S. military in 1876. It marked the culmination of tensions arising from westward expansion, treaty violations, and cultural misunderstandings between Native Americans and the U.S. government.
This battle, also known as Custer's Last Stand, resulted in a significant Native American victory but led to increased U.S. military campaigns against tribes. The aftermath shaped public perception, policy towards Indigenous peoples, and continues to influence discussions on Native American rights and representation today.
Background of the conflict
- Native American History course examines pivotal conflicts between Indigenous peoples and U.S. government
- Battle of Little Bighorn represents culmination of tensions between Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and U.S. military
- Conflict arose from complex factors including westward expansion, treaty violations, and cultural misunderstandings
Causes of the Great Sioux War
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- Discovery of gold in Black Hills led to influx of white settlers on Lakota land
- U.S. government's failure to honor 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty guarantees
- Increased military presence and establishment of forts in Sioux territory
- Sitting Bull's refusal to move to reservations sparked U.S. military response
- Economic pressures on Native Americans due to declining buffalo herds
Key figures and tribes involved
- Lakota Sioux leaders
- Sitting Bull: spiritual leader and war chief
- Crazy Horse: renowned warrior and tactical genius
- Northern Cheyenne chiefs
- Two Moon: principal chief and skilled diplomat
- Little Wolf: war chief and strategist
- U.S. military commanders
- General George Crook: experienced Indian fighter
- General Alfred Terry: overall commander of the campaign
- Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer: 7th Cavalry commander
- Arapaho allies joined Lakota and Cheyenne coalition
U.S. military strategy
- Three-pronged approach to force Native Americans onto reservations
- General Crook's column from Wyoming
- General Terry's column from Montana, including Custer's 7th Cavalry
- Colonel John Gibbon's column from western Montana
- Aim to converge on Lakota and Cheyenne camps along Little Bighorn River
- Underestimation of Native American fighting strength and resolve
Battle preparations
- Native American History course emphasizes importance of understanding both sides' preparations
- Battle of Little Bighorn preparations highlight contrasting approaches to warfare
- Examination of logistical, strategic, and cultural factors that influenced battle readiness
Sioux and Cheyenne alliances
- Formation of largest gathering of Plains Indians in recorded history
- Estimated 7,000 warriors from various tribes united under common cause
- Spiritual preparations led by Sitting Bull, including Sun Dance ceremony
- Tactical planning by war leaders Crazy Horse and Gall
- Integration of different tribal fighting styles and strategies
- Establishment of large camp along Little Bighorn River (Greasy Grass)
Custer's 7th Cavalry Regiment
- Composition of approximately 600 soldiers divided into 12 companies
- Inclusion of Arikara and Crow scouts familiar with terrain and enemy
- Equipment included single-shot Springfield carbines and Colt revolvers
- Limited supplies and ammunition due to rapid march to engage enemy
- Custer's decision to split forces into three battalions
- Overconfidence in military superiority and underestimation of Native American strength
Terrain and battlefield layout
- Little Bighorn River valley characterized by rolling hills and ravines
- Native American camp stretched for several miles along river's west bank
- High ground provided tactical advantages for both sides
- Custer's approach from the east over Wolf Mountains
- Natural obstacles (bluffs, coulees) influenced troop movements
- Limited visibility due to terrain features affected battlefield communication
Course of the battle
- Native American History course analyzes Battle of Little Bighorn as turning point in U.S.-Indigenous relations
- Examination of battle phases reveals complexity of engagement and strategic decisions
- Understanding course of battle crucial for comprehending its historical significance
Initial engagement at Greasy Grass
- Major Marcus Reno's battalion attacked southern end of Native American camp
- Fierce resistance from Lakota and Cheyenne warriors forced Reno to retreat
- Warriors pursued Reno's men across Little Bighorn River
- Reno's survivors took defensive position on high ground (Reno Hill)
- Captain Frederick Benteen's battalion arrived to reinforce Reno's position
Custer's last stand
- Custer's battalion of about 210 men moved north along bluffs
- Engaged large force of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors near village's northern end
- Native American fighters quickly surrounded and overwhelmed Custer's troops
- Last stand occurred on hill later named Custer Hill
- All of Custer's men killed in approximately two hours of fighting
- Eyewitness accounts describe chaotic scene of hand-to-hand combat
Reno and Benteen's actions
- Combined forces of Reno and Benteen held defensive position on Reno Hill
- Withstood multiple attacks from Native American warriors
- Captain Thomas Weir led unsuccessful attempt to reach Custer's position
- Siege of Reno Hill continued until arrival of Terry's column on June 27
- Survivors provided first accounts of battle to arriving reinforcements
Tactical analysis
- Native American History course emphasizes importance of understanding military tactics and strategies
- Analysis of Battle of Little Bighorn reveals strengths and weaknesses of both sides
- Examination of tactics provides insight into broader patterns of warfare in the American West
Native American battle tactics
- Use of superior numbers to overwhelm and encircle enemy forces
- Highly mobile warfare utilizing expert horsemanship
- Decentralized command structure allowing for flexible response to changing conditions
- Effective use of terrain for concealment and ambush
- Psychological warfare through war cries and intimidation tactics
- Skillful employment of traditional weapons (bows, lances) alongside firearms
U.S. military mistakes
- Underestimation of Native American fighting capabilities and numbers
- Custer's decision to split his forces in face of unknown enemy strength
- Failure to adequately scout enemy positions before engagement
- Overreliance on offensive tactics without proper defensive preparations
- Poor communication between separated battalions
- Inadequate ammunition supplies for prolonged engagement
Weapons and equipment comparison
- Native American warriors
- Mix of traditional weapons (bows, war clubs, lances) and firearms
- Repeating rifles (Winchester and Henry) provided superior firepower
- Light and mobile, allowing for quick attacks and retreats
- U.S. Cavalry
- Single-shot Springfield carbines with longer range but slower rate of fire
- Colt revolvers for close-quarter combat
- Heavy equipment and supplies limited mobility
- Lack of machine guns or artillery support
Aftermath and consequences
- Native American History course explores short-term and long-term impacts of Battle of Little Bighorn
- Examination of aftermath reveals complex consequences for all parties involved
- Understanding consequences crucial for comprehending broader historical context of U.S.-Indigenous relations
Immediate impact on participants
- Complete annihilation of Custer's battalion (over 200 men killed)
- Significant casualties among Reno and Benteen's forces
- Native American victory celebration tempered by awareness of likely U.S. retaliation
- Dispersal of Lakota and Cheyenne camps to avoid pursuing U.S. forces
- Increased U.S. military presence and operations in the region
- Retrieval and burial of U.S. soldiers' remains by arriving reinforcements
Public reaction in the U.S.
- Shock and outrage at news of Custer's defeat
- Calls for increased military action against Native Americans
- Heightened public interest in the "Indian Wars"
- Custer portrayed as heroic martyr in popular media
- Intensified negative stereotypes and attitudes towards Native Americans
- Political pressure on government to resolve "Indian problem" definitively
Long-term effects on Native Americans
- Increased U.S. military campaigns against Lakota and Cheyenne
- Forced relocation of many tribes to reservations
- Gradual erosion of Native American independence and traditional ways of life
- Loss of sacred lands, including the Black Hills
- Lasting impact on tribal identities and cultural practices
- Development of resistance movements and efforts to preserve Indigenous cultures
Historical interpretations
- Native American History course emphasizes critical analysis of historical sources and interpretations
- Examination of Battle of Little Bighorn interpretations reveals evolving understanding of event
- Understanding historiography crucial for developing nuanced perspective on complex historical events
Eyewitness accounts vs official reports
- Discrepancies between Native American oral histories and U.S. military reports
- Bias in early U.S. accounts favoring heroic portrayal of Custer and U.S. forces
- Native American perspectives often overlooked or dismissed in initial historical records
- Archaeological evidence challenging some aspects of both Native and U.S. accounts
- Importance of cross-referencing multiple sources for accurate reconstruction of events
- Role of cultural and linguistic barriers in shaping differing narratives
Evolving perspectives over time
- Initial focus on Custer's "Last Stand" as central narrative
- Gradual incorporation of Native American perspectives in historical accounts
- Shift towards more balanced view of battle's causes and consequences
- Influence of changing social and political climate on historical interpretations
- Reassessment of key figures' roles and motivations (Custer, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse)
- Impact of new archaeological discoveries and forensic analysis on understanding of battle
Controversies and debates
- Custer's decisions and culpability for the defeat
- Accuracy of casualty numbers on both sides
- Role of Native American firearms in determining battle outcome
- Extent of U.S. military's underestimation of Native American forces
- Significance of battle in broader context of U.S.-Native American relations
- Ethical considerations in portrayal and commemoration of battle
Cultural significance
- Native American History course explores cultural impact of Battle of Little Bighorn
- Examination of battle's place in collective memory of both Native Americans and U.S. society
- Understanding cultural significance crucial for appreciating battle's enduring relevance
Battle in Native American oral tradition
- Preservation of battle accounts through storytelling and winter counts
- Emphasis on spiritual aspects and prophecies related to the victory
- Incorporation of battle into tribal histories and identity formation
- Variations in narratives between different tribes and bands
- Use of battle stories to teach values and traditions to younger generations
- Challenges in reconciling oral traditions with written historical records
Depictions in art and literature
- Numerous paintings depicting dramatic scenes from the battle
- Examples: Cassilly Adams' "Custer's Last Fight", Frederic Remington works
- Literary works exploring battle from various perspectives
- Novels: "Little Big Man" by Thomas Berger, "The Last Stand" by Nathaniel Philbrick
- Influence on popular culture through films and television series
- Movies: "They Died with Their Boots On" (1941), "Little Big Man" (1970)
- Evolution of artistic portrayals reflecting changing historical interpretations
- Native American artists reclaiming narrative through their own depictions
Memorials and commemorations
- Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument (formerly Custer Battlefield National Monument)
- Annual reenactments and ceremonies at battle site
- Controversies surrounding naming and focus of memorials
- Addition of Indian Memorial in 2003 to honor Native American participants
- Preservation efforts for battlefield site and artifacts
- Educational programs and exhibits at battlefield visitor center
Legacy and modern relevance
- Native American History course connects historical events to contemporary issues
- Examination of Battle of Little Bighorn's legacy reveals ongoing impact on U.S.-Native relations
- Understanding modern relevance crucial for appreciating complexity of Indigenous rights and representation
Impact on U.S.-Native relations
- Intensification of U.S. government policies aimed at assimilation and reservation confinement
- Long-lasting negative stereotypes and misconceptions about Native Americans
- Influence on subsequent treaties and negotiations between U.S. and tribes
- Symbol of Native American resistance and sovereignty in modern discourse
- Continued legal battles over land rights and treaty obligations
- Role in shaping public perception and policy towards Indigenous peoples
Battle site preservation efforts
- Establishment of Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument in 1879
- Ongoing archaeological research and preservation of artifacts
- Challenges in balancing tourism with respect for sacred site
- Collaboration between National Park Service and tribal representatives
- Efforts to incorporate multiple perspectives in site interpretation
- Use of technology (GIS, LiDAR) for mapping and preserving battlefield landscape
Little Bighorn in popular culture
- Enduring fascination with battle in American consciousness
- Portrayal in numerous films, documentaries, and television series
- Influence on historical fiction and non-fiction literature
- Use of battle imagery and references in advertising and branding
- Impact on tourism industry in Montana and surrounding areas
- Role in shaping public understanding of Native American history and culture
Key Terms to Review (28)
Sitting Bull: Sitting Bull was a prominent Lakota Sioux leader and medicine man known for his role in resisting U.S. government policies and his leadership during the Plains Indian Wars. He became a symbol of Native American resistance against the encroachment of settlers and the U.S. military, especially during pivotal events like the Battle of Little Bighorn.
Greasy grass: Greasy grass is a term used by the Lakota Sioux to refer to the Little Bighorn River, which is the site of the infamous Battle of Little Bighorn. The name reflects the area's lush, green vegetation and signifies the historical and cultural importance of this land to the Lakota people. The battle that took place here in 1876 became a pivotal moment in Native American history, representing a significant victory for indigenous forces against U.S. military forces.
Arapaho Allies: The Arapaho Allies were a group of Native American tribes, primarily the Arapaho people, who formed alliances with other tribes and, at times, European settlers and the United States military. These alliances were often strategic, aiming to strengthen their position against common enemies, such as rival tribes or colonial forces. During conflicts like the Battle of Little Bighorn, the Arapaho played a significant role alongside other tribes in resisting U.S. expansion into their territories.
Reno Hill: Reno Hill is a significant geographic location in Montana that played a critical role during the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876. This hill served as a vantage point for troops led by Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer, providing them with an elevated position to observe the movements of the opposing Lakota and Cheyenne forces. The strategic importance of Reno Hill was highlighted by the unfolding events of the battle, showcasing both its advantages and disadvantages for the soldiers stationed there.
Custer Hill: Custer Hill refers to the elevated position near the Little Bighorn River where Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer and his men made their last stand during the Battle of Little Bighorn on June 25-26, 1876. The hill became synonymous with Custer's defeat against a coalition of Native American tribes, marking a significant event in U.S. military history and Native American resistance.
Lieutenant colonel george armstrong custer: Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer was a U.S. Army officer and cavalry commander known for his role in the American Indian Wars, particularly the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876. Custer gained fame for his aggressive tactics and his leadership during the Civil War, but his legacy is largely shaped by his controversial defeat at the hands of Native American forces, which became a symbol of the tragic consequences of westward expansion.
General George Crook: General George Crook was a key figure in the United States Army during the late 19th century, known for his role in various military campaigns against Native American tribes. He is particularly noted for his strategic approach to warfare, which emphasized understanding and negotiating with Native Americans, distinguishing him from other military leaders of his time. His involvement in the conflicts surrounding the Battle of Little Bighorn highlights his complicated legacy and the broader U.S. military policies toward Native peoples.
Two Moon: Two Moon was a notable Oglala Lakota warrior and chief who played a significant role during the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876. He was one of the prominent leaders fighting against the United States Army, particularly under the command of General George Custer, during this pivotal conflict, which marked a major confrontation between Native American forces and U.S. military efforts to suppress them.
Little Wolf: Little Wolf was a prominent leader of the Northern Cheyenne tribe during the late 19th century, known for his resistance against U.S. government policies that aimed to displace Native Americans from their lands. He played a critical role in the events leading up to and during the Battle of Little Bighorn, where he led his people in the fight against U.S. military forces led by General George Custer. His leadership exemplified the struggle of the Northern Cheyenne and other tribes during a time of immense upheaval.
Black Hills: The Black Hills are a small mountain range located in South Dakota and Wyoming, considered sacred by several Native American tribes, especially the Lakota Sioux. This region has significant cultural, spiritual, and historical importance, particularly in relation to treaties, land disputes, and events like the Battle of Little Bighorn.
Historical memory: Historical memory refers to the way societies remember and interpret past events, influencing how they understand their identity and culture. This concept often involves the collective recollections of communities, shaped by narratives, symbols, and commemorations that serve to honor or critique past experiences. It plays a critical role in shaping public perception, historical narratives, and intergroup relationships.
Cultural resistance: Cultural resistance refers to the ways in which marginalized groups assert their identity and values in opposition to dominant cultural narratives and practices. This concept often manifests through the preservation of traditions, languages, and customs that challenge the prevailing norms imposed by colonizers or oppressors, showcasing resilience and agency.
George Armstrong Custer: George Armstrong Custer was a United States Army officer and cavalry commander known for his role in the American Indian Wars, particularly during the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876. His aggressive tactics and controversial decisions have made him a significant figure in the conflict between the U.S. government and Native American tribes, as well as a symbol of the complexities surrounding military leadership and colonial expansion.
General Alfred Terry: General Alfred Terry was a prominent United States Army officer known for his role in the Indian Wars, particularly during the 1870s. He is best recognized for leading the expedition that ultimately led to the Battle of Little Bighorn, where he played a key part in the military strategies that were employed against Native American tribes during a time of significant conflict between settlers and Indigenous peoples.
Cheyenne Warrior Tradition: The Cheyenne Warrior Tradition refers to the cultural practices and beliefs of the Cheyenne people regarding warfare, bravery, and the role of warriors in society. This tradition emphasizes not only the physical prowess needed in battle but also a deep spiritual connection to their ancestors and the land, which plays a crucial role in their identity and values as a community.
Lakota Sioux Culture: Lakota Sioux culture is a rich and complex system of beliefs, practices, and traditions of the Lakota people, one of the three divisions of the Sioux Nation. It is characterized by a deep connection to nature, spirituality, and community, where aspects like storytelling, dance, and the buffalo hunt play significant roles. The culture emphasizes values such as respect for the land, communal living, and strong ties to ancestry, which were particularly crucial during periods of conflict and change, like the Battle of Little Bighorn.
Cavalry charge: A cavalry charge is a military tactic involving soldiers on horseback charging directly at the enemy to break their lines and create chaos. This tactic was widely used in battles to overwhelm opposing forces quickly, using the speed and momentum of the horses to disrupt formations. The cavalry charge often relied on surprise and rapid movement, which were key components in several significant military engagements, including conflicts during the Indian Wars.
Assimilation policies: Assimilation policies are strategies aimed at integrating a minority group into the dominant culture, often at the expense of the minority's original cultural identity. These policies typically involve efforts to change the social, cultural, and economic practices of Indigenous peoples to fit within Euro-American norms. This concept is crucial in understanding historical events, particularly those where Indigenous communities resisted or adapted to imposed changes.
Flanking Maneuver: A flanking maneuver is a military tactic where forces attempt to attack an enemy from the side or rear, rather than head-on. This tactic aims to catch the enemy off guard and create confusion, often leading to a significant advantage in battle. It is crucial in maximizing the effectiveness of troop movements and exploiting the weaknesses of the opposing forces.
Great Sioux War: The Great Sioux War was a series of conflicts between the United States and various Native American tribes, particularly the Lakota Sioux, that took place from 1876 to 1877. This war was largely ignited by the U.S. government's desire to access gold in the Black Hills, which was sacred land to the Sioux. The war culminated in notable battles and significant events that highlighted the broader conflict over land and sovereignty between Native Americans and settlers.
Treaty of Fort Atkinson: The Treaty of Fort Atkinson was a significant agreement made in 1853 between the United States government and various Native American tribes, primarily the Pawnee, to establish peace and regulate trade in the Great Plains region. This treaty aimed to prevent conflicts and promote peaceful relations as settlers moved westward, but it ultimately failed to maintain lasting peace due to ongoing pressures from expansion and settlement.
Crazy Horse: Crazy Horse was a prominent Lakota Sioux warrior and leader known for his role in resisting the U.S. government's encroachment on Native American lands during the 19th century. He is best remembered for his leadership during critical confrontations, particularly in the Plains Indian Wars, where he became a symbol of Native American resistance, culminating in his pivotal involvement in the Battle of Little Bighorn.
Displacement: Displacement refers to the forced removal or relocation of individuals or groups from their homeland, often due to external pressures such as colonization, war, or economic exploitation. This term is crucial in understanding the impact of European expansion and the various historical events that led to the loss of territory, culture, and identity for many indigenous populations.
Wounded Knee Massacre: The Wounded Knee Massacre was a tragic event that occurred on December 29, 1890, when U.S. Army soldiers killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux men, women, and children at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. This event symbolizes the violent culmination of U.S. government policies against Native Americans and highlights the tensions between Indigenous peoples and the federal government during a period marked by conflict and resistance.
Battle of Little Bighorn: The Battle of Little Bighorn, fought on June 25-26, 1876, was a significant conflict between the United States Army and Native American forces, primarily those of the Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne. This battle is emblematic of the broader conflicts during the westward expansion, highlighting the clash between the ideals of Manifest Destiny and the resistance of Indigenous peoples to encroachment on their lands.
Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to the supreme authority of a state or governing body to govern itself without external interference. In the context of Native American history, sovereignty is crucial as it highlights the inherent rights of tribes to self-govern, manage their lands, and maintain their cultural identities amidst colonial and federal pressures.
Treaty of Fort Laramie: The Treaty of Fort Laramie, signed in 1851, was an agreement between the United States government and several Native American tribes, establishing territorial boundaries for the tribes and promising protection and annuities in exchange for peace. This treaty represents a crucial moment in U.S. relations with Native American nations, reflecting the complexities of land rights, sovereignty, and the impact of expanding settlements.
Indian Removal Act: The Indian Removal Act of 1830 was a law that authorized the forced relocation of Native American tribes living east of the Mississippi River to designated 'Indian Territory' west of the river. This act was a significant part of a broader policy aimed at clearing lands for European-American settlement, reflecting the belief in Manifest Destiny and the nation's expansionist ambitions.