Antimicrobial drugs are crucial weapons against various pathogens. They target specific components of microbes, disrupting their function and survival. From antifungals to antivirals, each drug class has unique modes of action tailored to combat different types of infections.

Effective use of antimicrobials requires understanding their mechanisms and limitations. Factors like drug resistance, patient health, and local epidemiology all play roles in treatment success. Strategies like and resistance monitoring help optimize antimicrobial use in clinical practice.

Antifungal, Antiprotozoan, and Antihelminthic Drugs

Modes of action across antimicrobials

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  • target synthesis inhibiting a key component of fungal cell membranes disrupting their integrity leading to cell death (, , )
  • Antiprotozoan drugs interfere with specific metabolic pathways unique to protozoa inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis, protein synthesis, or energy production (, , )
  • Antihelminthic drugs paralyze or kill helminths by disrupting neuromuscular transmission interfering with their metabolism or causing structural damage (, , )
  • Antiviral drugs inhibit viral replication by targeting specific stages of the viral life cycle blocking entry, inhibiting viral enzymes, or interfering with viral genome synthesis (, , )
  • The of these drugs varies, with some being broad-spectrum and others narrow-spectrum

Major classes of antifungal drugs

  • Azoles inhibit synthesis by blocking the enzyme (, , )
  • bind to ergosterol creating pores in the fungal cell membrane ()
  • inhibit the synthesis of a key component of the fungal cell wall (, , )
  • cause DNA damage and inhibit nucleic acid synthesis in anaerobic protozoa ()
  • interfere with heme detoxification in malaria parasites (, , )
  • inhibit folate synthesis which is essential for nucleic acid synthesis (, )

Antiviral Drugs and Strategies

Challenges in antiviral development

  • Viruses rely on host cell machinery for replication making it difficult to target them without harming host cells
  • High mutation rates in some viruses lead to rapid development of drug resistance
  • Diverse viral structures and replication strategies complicate the development of broad-spectrum antivirals
  • can limit the use of some antiviral medications Strategies used to combat viral diseases:
  1. Inhibiting viral entry and fusion ( for , for RSV)
  2. Blocking viral enzymes essential for replication ( for herpes, for influenza)
  3. Interfering with viral genome synthesis ( for HIV, for HCV)
  4. Enhancing host immune responses through stimulating innate antiviral immunity (###-alpha_0###) or adaptive immunity (vaccines)
  5. Combination therapy targeting multiple viral targets to reduce the risk of drug resistance ( for HIV combining multiple drug classes)

Antimicrobial Use and Considerations

Factors influencing antimicrobial effectiveness

  • of the drug, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion
  • patterns in the target population
  • Patient factors such as immune status, age, and underlying health conditions

Strategies for optimal antimicrobial use

  • in high-risk situations to prevent infections
  • Combination therapy to enhance efficacy and reduce the risk of resistance development
  • Regular monitoring of local resistance patterns to guide empiric therapy choices

Key Terms to Review (198)

Acyclovir: Acyclovir is an antiviral medication used to treat infections caused by herpes viruses, including genital herpes, cold sores, shingles, and chickenpox. It works by inhibiting the replication of viral DNA.
Acyclovir: Acyclovir is an antiviral medication primarily used to treat infections caused by the herpes simplex virus, including cold sores, genital herpes, and shingles. It works by inhibiting the replication of the viral DNA, effectively preventing the virus from spreading and causing further infection.
Adenine-arabinoside: Adenine-arabinoside, also known as vidarabine, is an antiviral drug used primarily to treat herpes simplex and varicella-zoster viruses. It works by inhibiting viral DNA synthesis.
African sleeping sickness: African sleeping sickness, also known as human African trypanosomiasis, is a parasitic disease caused by protozoa of the genus Trypanosoma. It is transmitted by the bite of an infected tsetse fly.
Albendazole: Albendazole is a broad-spectrum anthelmintic medication used to treat a variety of parasitic worm infestations. It works by inhibiting the microtubule synthesis in parasites, leading to their death.
Allylamines: Allylamines are a class of antifungal drugs that inhibit the enzyme squalene epoxidase, which is crucial for ergosterol synthesis in fungal cell membranes. They are effective against dermatophytes and some yeast infections.
Amantadine: Amantadine is an antiviral and antiparkinsonian drug that inhibits the replication of certain viruses by blocking the viral protein M2. It is also used to treat symptoms of Parkinson's disease due to its dopaminergic effects.
Amphotericin B: Amphotericin B is an antifungal medication primarily used to treat serious fungal infections. It works by binding to ergosterol in fungal cell membranes, causing cell death.
Amphotericin B: Amphotericin B is a potent antifungal medication used to treat a variety of serious fungal infections. It is a polyene macrolide antibiotic that disrupts the cell membrane of fungal cells, leading to their death or inhibition of growth. Amphotericin B is particularly relevant in the contexts of mechanisms of other antimicrobial drugs, respiratory mycoses, and parasitic infections of the circulatory and lymphatic systems.
Anemia: Anemia is a condition characterized by a deficiency of red blood cells or hemoglobin, leading to reduced oxygen transport in the body. It can result from various factors including nutritional deficiencies, chronic diseases, or infections.
Anidulafungin: Anidulafungin is a semi-synthetic echinocandin antifungal drug used to treat invasive fungal infections. It functions by inhibiting the synthesis of 1,3-β-D-glucan, an essential component of the fungal cell wall, leading to osmotic instability and cell lysis.
Antifolates: Antifolates are a class of antimicrobial drugs that inhibit the synthesis of folate, an essential vitamin required for the production of DNA and RNA. They are particularly effective against rapidly dividing cells, such as those found in bacterial infections and certain types of cancer.
Antifungal drugs: Antifungal drugs are medications used to treat fungal infections by targeting the cell membranes or key metabolic processes of fungi. These drugs can be either fungistatic (inhibit growth) or fungicidal (kill fungi).
Antimetabolites: Antimetabolites are a class of drugs that interfere with the normal metabolic processes of cells by mimicking the structure of natural substrates. They are commonly used in chemotherapy and antimicrobial therapy to inhibit cell growth and replication.
Antimicrobial Resistance: Antimicrobial resistance refers to the ability of microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, to resist the effects of antimicrobial drugs, including antibiotics, antivirals, and antifungals. This phenomenon is a growing global public health concern as it can lead to the failure of standard treatments, increased healthcare costs, and the spread of infections.
Antiretroviral therapy (ART): Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the use of a combination of antiretroviral drugs to manage and treat HIV infection. It aims to reduce viral load, improve immune function, and prevent HIV transmission.
Artemisinin: Artemisinin is an antimalarial drug derived from the sweet wormwood plant, Artemisia annua. It is known for its rapid action in reducing Plasmodium parasite levels in the blood.
Aspergillosis: Aspergillosis is an infection caused by the Aspergillus species of fungi, which primarily affects the respiratory system but can disseminate to other organs. It is most commonly seen in immunocompromised individuals.
Athlete’s foot: Athlete’s foot is a common fungal infection caused by dermatophytes, primarily affecting the skin of the feet. It thrives in warm, moist environments and is highly contagious.
Atovaquone: Atovaquone is an antimicrobial drug that inhibits the mitochondrial electron transport chain in protozoa and fungi. It is primarily used to treat and prevent Pneumocystis pneumonia and malaria.
Atovaquone: Atovaquone is an antiprotozoal drug used to treat and prevent certain parasitic infections, particularly Pneumocystis pneumonia and malaria. It works by disrupting the electron transport chain in the mitochondria of these parasites, leading to their death or inhibition of growth.
Avermectins: Avermectins are a class of macrocyclic lactone compounds derived from the bacterium Streptomyces avermitilis. They are primarily used as antiparasitic agents but have some antimicrobial properties as well.
Azidothymidine/zidovudine: Azidothymidine (AZT), also known as zidovudine, is a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) used primarily to treat HIV. It inhibits the replication of the virus by interfering with its reverse transcriptase enzyme.
Azoles: Azoles are a class of synthetic organic compounds that contain a five-membered heterocyclic ring with at least one nitrogen atom. They are widely used as antifungal agents, targeting specific enzymes involved in fungal cell membrane synthesis and disrupting the integrity of the cell membrane.
Babesiosis: Babesiosis is a parasitic infection of the red blood cells caused by protozoa of the genus Babesia, commonly transmitted through tick bites. It primarily affects the circulatory system and can result in hemolytic anemia.
Bactrim: Bactrim is a combination antibiotic containing sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim, used to treat a variety of bacterial infections. It works by inhibiting the production of folic acid in bacteria, which is crucial for their growth and replication.
Benzimidazoles: Benzimidazoles are a class of antimicrobial drugs that inhibit the synthesis of microtubules, disrupting cell division. They are commonly used against parasitic worms and fungi.
Benzimidazoles: Benzimidazoles are a class of heterocyclic organic compounds that have a fused benzene and imidazole ring structure. These compounds have a wide range of pharmacological and biological activities, making them important in the field of antimicrobial drug development.
Blastomycosis: Blastomycosis is a fungal infection caused by the dimorphic fungus Blastomyces dermatitidis. It primarily affects the lungs but can disseminate to other body parts such as skin and bones.
Blood flukes: Blood flukes are parasitic flatworms that belong to the genus Schistosoma. They infect the blood vessels of their hosts, leading to schistosomiasis.
Carcinogenesis: Carcinogenesis is the process by which normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. It involves a series of mutations and changes in cellular behavior that lead to uncontrolled cell growth.
Caspofungin: Caspofungin is an echinocandin class antifungal drug that inhibits the synthesis of 1,3-beta-D-glucan, an essential component of the fungal cell wall. It is primarily used to treat invasive fungal infections caused by Candida and Aspergillus species.
Chickenpox: Chickenpox is a highly contagious viral infection caused by the varicella-zoster virus, characterized by an itchy rash and red spots or blisters. It primarily affects children but can occur in individuals of any age.
Chitin: Chitin is a long-chain polymer of N-acetylglucosamine, a derivative of glucose, which forms the structural component in the exoskeletons of arthropods and the cell walls of fungi. It provides rigidity and structural integrity to these organisms.
Chloroquine: Chloroquine is an antimalarial drug that also exhibits bactericidal properties. It interferes with the growth of parasites in the red blood cells.
Chloroquine: Chloroquine is an antimalarial drug that has also been studied for its potential use against certain viral infections. It is a synthetic compound that disrupts the replication and spread of parasites and viruses within the human body.
Cholesterol: Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in all cells of the body. It is essential for making hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help digest foods.
Coenzyme Q: Coenzyme Q (also known as ubiquinone) is a lipid-soluble molecule found in the mitochondria, essential for aerobic cellular respiration. It plays a crucial role in the electron transport chain, facilitating ATP production.
Combination Therapy: Combination therapy refers to the use of two or more antimicrobial drugs simultaneously to treat an infection. This approach aims to enhance the efficacy of treatment, prevent the development of drug resistance, and target multiple aspects of the microbial pathogenesis.
Cryptococcal meningitis: Cryptococcal meningitis is a severe fungal infection of the central nervous system caused primarily by Cryptococcus neoformans. It often affects immunocompromised individuals, such as those with HIV/AIDS.
Cytomegalovirus: Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common herpesvirus that can cause asymptomatic infections or severe disease in immunocompromised individuals. It particularly affects the gastrointestinal tract and can complicate organ transplants.
Dandruff: Dandruff is a common scalp condition characterized by the shedding of dead skin cells. It is often associated with the yeast Malassezia and can be treated using antimicrobial agents.
Deoxyadenosine: Deoxyadenosine is a nucleoside consisting of the nitrogenous base adenine attached to a deoxyribose sugar. It is a building block of DNA, crucial for genetic information storage and transmission.
Dermatophytes: Dermatophytes are a group of fungi that cause infections in keratinized tissues such as skin, hair, and nails. They are responsible for common fungal infections like athlete's foot and ringworm.
Drug Toxicity: Drug toxicity refers to the adverse or harmful effects that a drug can have on the body, either through acute or chronic exposure. It is a critical consideration in the development and use of antimicrobial drugs, as the balance between therapeutic efficacy and safety is essential for successful treatment.
Echinocandins: Echinocandins are a class of antifungal drugs that inhibit the synthesis of β-(1,3)-D-glucan, an essential component of the fungal cell wall. They are particularly effective against Candida and Aspergillus species.
Echinocandins: Echinocandins are a class of antifungal drugs that target and disrupt the fungal cell wall by inhibiting the enzyme 1,3-β-D-glucan synthase, which is responsible for the synthesis of 1,3-β-D-glucan, a crucial structural component of the fungal cell wall. This mechanism of action is unique compared to other antifungal agents, making echinocandins an important option in the treatment of invasive fungal infections.
Enfuviritide: Enfuvirtide is an antiretroviral drug used to treat HIV infection by inhibiting the fusion of the virus with the host cell membrane. It is a peptide-based drug administered via subcutaneous injection.
Enfuvirtide: Enfuvirtide is a synthetic peptide drug that inhibits the fusion of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) with the host cell membrane, preventing the virus from entering and infecting the cell. It is used as an antiretroviral medication in the treatment of HIV infection, specifically in individuals who have developed resistance to other classes of antiretroviral drugs.
Entamoeba histolytica: Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite that causes amoebic dysentery in humans. It primarily infects the intestines, leading to severe gastrointestinal symptoms.
Enteroviruses: Enteroviruses are a group of RNA viruses that primarily inhabit the gastrointestinal tract but can spread to other areas of the body. They are known for causing a variety of diseases, including poliomyelitis and viral meningitis.
Epstein-Barr virus: Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a herpesvirus that primarily infects B cells and epithelial cells, causing mononucleosis. It is associated with several cancers, including Burkitt's lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma.
Ergosterol: Ergosterol is a sterol component found in fungal cell membranes, similar to cholesterol in animal cells. It is targeted by certain antifungal drugs due to its crucial role in maintaining cell membrane integrity.
Ergosterol: Ergosterol is a sterol compound found in the cell membranes of fungi, serving a similar function to cholesterol in animal cell membranes. It is an essential component of fungal cell walls and plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity and fluidity of fungal cell membranes.
Etravirine: Etravirine is a non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) used in the treatment of HIV-1. It works by binding to and inhibiting the reverse transcriptase enzyme, preventing viral replication.
Fluconazole: Fluconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat various fungal infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes.
Fluconazole: Fluconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat a variety of fungal infections. It works by interfering with the fungal cell membrane, disrupting the fungal cell's ability to maintain its structure and function, ultimately leading to the death of the fungal cells.
Flucytosine: Flucytosine is an antifungal medication used to treat serious fungal infections. It works by inhibiting fungal DNA and RNA synthesis.
Folic acid: Folic acid is a B-vitamin essential for DNA synthesis and repair, as well as cell division. It plays a crucial role in the production of nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA.
Fusion inhibitors: Fusion inhibitors are a class of antiviral drugs that prevent viruses from entering host cells by blocking the fusion of the viral and cellular membranes. They are primarily used in the treatment of HIV.
Fusion Inhibitors: Fusion inhibitors are a class of antiviral drugs that block the fusion of a virus with the host cell membrane, preventing the virus from entering and infecting the cell. They are primarily used to treat and prevent viral infections by disrupting this critical step in the viral replication cycle.
Genital herpes: Genital herpes is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by the herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) or type 2 (HSV-2). It results in painful sores and blisters on the genital and anal areas.
Giardia lamblia: Giardia lamblia is a unicellular eukaryotic parasite that causes giardiasis, a common gastrointestinal infection. It primarily inhabits the small intestine of humans and other mammals.
Griseofulvin: Griseofulvin is an antifungal medication used to treat fungal infections of the skin, hair, and nails. It works by inhibiting fungal cell mitosis, leading to the disruption of fungal growth.
Guanosine: Guanosine is a nucleoside composed of the nitrogenous base guanine attached to a ribose sugar molecule. It plays a critical role in various cellular processes, including serving as a building block for RNA.
Guanosine triphosphate: Guanosine triphosphate (GTP) is a nucleotide that serves as an energy source in metabolic processes. It is also involved in signal transduction and protein synthesis.
HAART: HAART, or Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy, is a combination of multiple antiretroviral drugs used to treat HIV infection. It is a critical component in the management of immunodeficiency disorders, as well as a mechanism of action for certain antimicrobial drugs.
Hepatitis C: Hepatitis C is a liver infection caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV). It can lead to both acute and chronic hepatitis, ranging in severity from a mild illness to a serious, lifelong condition.
Hepatotoxicity: Hepatotoxicity is the occurrence of liver damage due to exposure to drugs or other substances. It is a critical consideration when evaluating the safety profile of antimicrobial drugs.
Herpes virus: Herpes virus is a member of the Herpesviridae family, known for causing infections such as herpes simplex and varicella-zoster. These viruses have a DNA genome and can establish lifelong latent infections.
Histoplasmosis: Histoplasmosis is a respiratory infection caused by the inhalation of spores from the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. It primarily affects the lungs but can disseminate to other organs in immunocompromised individuals.
HIV: HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a virus that targets the immune system, specifically CD4 cells (T cells), leading to a progressive failure of the immune system. If left untreated, HIV can lead to AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome).
Hycanthone: Hycanthone is an antiparasitic drug used primarily to treat schistosomiasis, a disease caused by parasitic worms. It works by interfering with the parasite's DNA replication and transcription.
Imidazoles: Imidazoles are a class of antifungal drugs that inhibit the synthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes. They are commonly used to treat various fungal infections in humans.
Influenza virus: Influenza virus is an RNA virus that causes the contagious respiratory illness known as the flu. It primarily infects the nose, throat, and occasionally the lungs, leading to symptoms like fever, cough, and body aches.
Integrase inhibitors: Integrase inhibitors are antiviral drugs that block the action of integrase, an enzyme used by retroviruses to insert their genetic material into the host cell's DNA. They are primarily used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS.
Interferon: Interferons are proteins produced by host cells in response to the presence of pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites. They play a critical role in the immune response by interfering with viral replication within host cells.
Interferon-alpha: Interferon-alpha is a type of cytokine produced by various cells in the body, primarily in response to viral infections. It plays a crucial role in the innate immune response by activating antiviral mechanisms and inhibiting viral replication, making it an important consideration in the context of antimicrobial drug mechanisms.
Itraconazole: Itraconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat a variety of fungal infections. It is particularly effective against dermatophytes, yeasts, and molds.
Itraconazole: Itraconazole is a broad-spectrum triazole antifungal drug used to treat a variety of fungal infections, including those affecting the skin, nails, and respiratory system. It works by disrupting the fungal cell membrane, inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a critical component of the fungal cell wall.
Jock itch: Jock itch, or tinea cruris, is a fungal infection of the skin in the groin area caused primarily by dermatophytes. It often results in itching, redness, and a ring-shaped rash.
Ketoconazole: Ketoconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat a variety of fungal infections, including those that affect the skin and respiratory system. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes.
Kinetoplasts: Kinetoplasts are unique, disk-shaped DNA-containing structures found within the single, large mitochondrion of certain protozoa, especially trypanosomes. They play a crucial role in mitochondrial function and energy production.
Lamisil: Lamisil is an antifungal medication primarily used to treat fungal infections of the skin and nails. Its active ingredient, terbinafine, inhibits the synthesis of ergosterol, a vital component of fungal cell membranes.
Lanosterol 14α-demethylase: Lanosterol 14α-demethylase is an essential enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of ergosterol, a key component of the fungal cell membrane. This enzyme catalyzes the removal of the 14α-methyl group from lanosterol, a critical step in the ergosterol synthesis pathway, making it a target for certain antifungal drugs.
Leishmaniasis: Leishmaniasis is a parasitic disease caused by protozoan parasites from the Leishmania genus. It is transmitted through the bites of infected female phlebotomine sandflies.
Liver flukes: Liver flukes are parasitic flatworms that infect the liver, bile ducts, and gallbladder of various mammals, including humans. They are transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated water or food.
Lucanthone: Lucanthone is an antimicrobial drug primarily used to treat schistosomiasis, a parasitic infection. It works by inhibiting DNA synthesis and causing damage to the parasite's DNA.
Malarone: Malarone is a combination antimicrobial drug containing atovaquone and proguanil, used primarily for the prevention and treatment of malaria. It works by inhibiting mitochondrial electron transport in the parasite and disrupting folate synthesis.
Mebendazole: Mebendazole is a broad-spectrum anthelmintic drug used to treat parasitic worm infections, particularly those affecting the gastrointestinal tract. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of microtubules, leading to impaired glucose uptake in helminths.
Mefloquine: Mefloquine is an antimalarial drug used to prevent and treat malaria. It works by interfering with the growth of parasites in the red blood cells.
Mefloquine: Mefloquine is an antimalarial drug that works by interfering with the parasite's ability to break down and utilize heme, a byproduct of hemoglobin digestion, leading to the accumulation of toxic heme within the parasite and ultimately its death. This mechanism of action makes mefloquine an effective treatment for certain types of malaria infections.
Meningitis: Meningitis is an inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, known as the meninges. It can be caused by bacterial, viral, fungal, or parasitic infections.
Mepacrine: Mepacrine, also known as quinacrine, is an antimicrobial drug with antiprotozoal and antihelminthic properties. It was historically used for the treatment of malaria and now sees limited use in other parasitic infections.
Metronidazole: Metronidazole is an antibiotic and antiprotozoal medication used to treat various infections caused by anaerobic bacteria and certain protozoa. It is commonly prescribed for conditions like bacterial vaginosis, trichomoniasis, and gastrointestinal infections.
Metronidazole: Metronidazole is a synthetic antimicrobial drug primarily used to treat anaerobic bacterial and protozoal infections. It is a nitroimidazole compound that disrupts the DNA of susceptible microorganisms, leading to their death or inhibition of growth.
Micafungin: Micafungin is an echinocandin class antifungal drug used to treat invasive fungal infections. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of 1,3-β-D-glucan, an essential component of the fungal cell wall, leading to cell lysis and death.
Microsporum: Microsporum is a genus of fungi known for causing dermatophytosis in humans and animals, primarily affecting the skin, hair, and nails. It is one of the main pathogens responsible for ringworm infections.
Naphthoquinone: Naphthoquinone is an organic compound derived from naphthalene with a quinone structure. It is known for its role in various biological and pharmacological activities, including antimicrobial properties.
Nephrotoxicity: Nephrotoxicity is the occurrence of kidney damage due to exposure to toxic substances, particularly certain drugs and chemicals. It can lead to impaired renal function, which affects the body's ability to filter and eliminate waste.
Neuraminidase: Neuraminidase is an enzyme found on the surface of influenza viruses that helps the virus release from the host cell after replication. It is a target for antiviral drugs like oseltamivir.
Neurotoxicity: Neurotoxicity is the occurrence of adverse effects on the nervous system due to exposure to toxic substances, including certain antimicrobial drugs. It can result in symptoms such as seizures, cognitive deficits, and sensory disturbances.
Niclosamide: Niclosamide is an antiparasitic drug primarily used to treat tapeworm infections in the gastrointestinal tract. It works by inhibiting the parasite's ability to generate energy, leading to its death.
Nikkomycins: Nikkomycins are a group of antifungal antibiotics that inhibit the synthesis of chitin, an essential component of fungal cell walls. They are primarily used to target fungal infections by disrupting the integrity of the fungal cell wall.
Nitroimidazoles: Nitroimidazoles are a class of antimicrobial drugs that target anaerobic bacteria and certain protozoa by causing DNA damage through the generation of reactive intermediates. They are often used to treat infections such as bacterial vaginosis, trichomoniasis, and giardiasis.
Nitroimidazoles: Nitroimidazoles are a class of synthetic antimicrobial agents that are effective against a variety of anaerobic bacteria and protozoa. They are particularly useful in the treatment of infections caused by anaerobic organisms, which are unable to survive in the presence of oxygen.
Nucleoside Analogues: Nucleoside analogues are synthetic compounds that structurally resemble naturally occurring nucleosides, the building blocks of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. These analogues can interfere with the normal functioning of microbial cells, making them valuable antimicrobial agents in the context of 14.4 Mechanisms of Other Antimicrobial Drugs.
Nystatin: Nystatin is an antifungal antibiotic used to treat fungal infections, particularly those caused by Candida species. It works by binding to ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane, creating pores that lead to cell death.
Olsetamivir: Oseltamivir is an antiviral medication used to treat and prevent influenza A and B. It works by inhibiting the neuraminidase enzyme, which is essential for viral replication.
Olysio: Olysio, also known as Simeprevir, is an antiviral medication used in combination with other drugs to treat chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. It works by inhibiting the HCV protease enzyme, which is essential for viral replication.
Onchocerca volvulus: Onchocerca volvulus is a parasitic worm that causes onchocerciasis, also known as river blindness. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected blackfly.
Onchocerciasis: Onchocerciasis, also known as river blindness, is a parasitic disease caused by the filarial worm Onchocerca volvulus. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected blackfly.
Oral thrush: Oral thrush is a fungal infection in the mouth caused by the overgrowth of Candida species, most commonly Candida albicans. It manifests as white lesions on the tongue and inner cheeks, sometimes leading to discomfort and difficulty swallowing.
Oseltamivir: Oseltamivir is an antiviral medication used to treat and prevent influenza A and B. It works by inhibiting the neuraminidase enzyme, which is essential for viral replication.
Oseltamivir: Oseltamivir is an antiviral medication used to treat and prevent influenza (flu) infections. It works by inhibiting the activity of the neuraminidase enzyme, which is essential for the release and spread of influenza viruses within the body, thereby reducing the duration and severity of flu symptoms.
Oxamniquine: Oxamniquine is an antiparasitic medication used to treat schistosomiasis, a disease caused by parasitic worms. It acts by inducing paralysis and death in the parasites.
Palivizumab: Palivizumab is a monoclonal antibody used for the prevention of severe lower respiratory tract infection caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) in high-risk infants and young children. It works by binding to the F protein of RSV, neutralizing the virus and preventing it from infecting host cells.
Parkinson’s disease: Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain. This leads to motor symptoms such as tremors, stiffness, and bradykinesia.
Pentamidine: Pentamidine is an antimicrobial drug used primarily to treat certain parasitic and fungal infections. It is often employed when other treatments are ineffective or contraindicated.
Peramivir: Peramivir is an antiviral drug used to treat influenza. It is a neuraminidase inhibitor that prevents the virus from spreading in the respiratory tract.
Pharmacokinetics: Pharmacokinetics is the study of the movement of drugs within the body, including the processes of absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination. It is a crucial aspect of understanding the effectiveness and safety of antimicrobial drugs used in the treatment of infectious diseases.
Picornaviruses: Picornaviruses are a family of small, non-enveloped RNA viruses that include notable pathogens such as poliovirus and rhinoviruses. They are known for their ability to cause a variety of diseases in humans, ranging from the common cold to more severe illnesses like hepatitis A.
Pleconaril: Pleconaril is an antiviral drug that targets picornaviruses, including enteroviruses and rhinoviruses. It works by binding to the viral capsid, preventing the virus from attaching to host cells and uncoating.
Pneumocystis: Pneumocystis is a genus of fungi, primarily known for causing Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) in immunocompromised individuals. It is often resistant to conventional antifungal treatments, necessitating specific antimicrobial drugs.
Polio: Polio is an infectious disease caused by the poliovirus, which can lead to paralysis and in severe cases, death. It primarily affects children and is preventable through vaccination.
Polyenes: Polyenes are a class of antifungal agents that target fungal cell membranes by binding to ergosterol, causing increased membrane permeability and cell death. They are primarily used to treat systemic fungal infections.
Polyenes: Polyenes are a class of antifungal drugs that target the cell membrane of fungi, disrupting its integrity and leading to cell death. They are characterized by the presence of a series of conjugated double bonds in their molecular structure.
Polyoxins: Polyoxins are a group of nucleoside antibiotics that inhibit fungal cell wall synthesis by targeting chitin synthase. They are primarily used in agriculture to control fungal diseases.
Praziquantel: Praziquantel is an antiparasitic medication used to treat infections caused by various species of parasitic worms, specifically schistosomiasis and liver flukes. It works by causing severe spasms and paralysis of the worms' muscles, leading to their death.
Praziquantel: Praziquantel is a broad-spectrum antiparasitic drug primarily used to treat infections caused by various types of parasitic worms, including schistosomes, tapeworms, and flukes. It is a highly effective medication that disrupts the structural and metabolic functions of parasitic helminths, leading to their elimination from the host's body.
Primaquine: Primaquine is an antimalarial drug that is primarily used to prevent and treat Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale malaria infections. It is effective against the dormant liver stage of these parasites, known as hypnozoites, which can cause relapses of malaria even after initial treatment.
Proguanil: Proguanil is an antimalarial drug that inhibits the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, essential for the synthesis of nucleotides in Plasmodium parasites. It is often used in combination with other antimalarials for prophylaxis and treatment.
Prophylaxis: Prophylaxis is the prevention of disease through various measures, such as vaccines or hygiene practices. It aims to prevent the onset of infection by preemptively boosting immune defenses.
Prophylaxis: Prophylaxis refers to the measures taken to prevent the occurrence or development of a disease or condition. It is a proactive approach to healthcare that aims to avoid the onset of illness or infection rather than treating it after it has already occurred.
Protease inhibitors: Protease inhibitors are a class of antimicrobial drugs that block the activity of proteases, enzymes which break down proteins. They are commonly used in the treatment of viral infections such as HIV.
Protease Inhibitors: Protease inhibitors are a class of drugs that block the action of proteases, which are enzymes that break down proteins. They are primarily used in the treatment of viral infections, particularly HIV, by preventing the virus from replicating and spreading within the host cells.
Pyrantel pamoate: Pyrantel pamoate is an antihelminthic medication used to treat parasitic worm infections in the gastrointestinal tract. It works by paralyzing the worms, which are then expelled from the body through the stool.
Pyrantel Pamoate: Pyrantel pamoate is an anthelmintic drug, meaning it is used to treat infections caused by parasitic worms, particularly those affecting the gastrointestinal tract. It works by disrupting the neuromuscular function of the worms, leading to their paralysis and expulsion from the host's body.
Pyrimethamine: Pyrimethamine is an antiparasitic drug primarily used to treat toxoplasmosis and malaria. It works by inhibiting dihydrofolate reductase, an enzyme necessary for the replication of protozoal DNA.
Pyrimethamine: Pyrimethamine is an antiprotozoal drug primarily used in the treatment and prevention of malaria, as well as in the treatment of toxoplasmosis, a parasitic infection caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii. It works by inhibiting the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which is essential for the synthesis of DNA and cell division in protozoan parasites.
Quinacrine: Quinacrine is an antimicrobial drug with antiprotozoal and antihelminthic properties. It interferes with the DNA synthesis of parasites and some bacteria.
Quinine: Quinine is a naturally occurring alkaloid used primarily as an antimalarial drug. It interferes with the parasite's ability to digest hemoglobin, leading to its death.
Quinolines: Quinolines are a class of synthetic antimicrobial agents that target the DNA replication process in bacteria. They are often used to treat infections like malaria and bacterial infections.
Quinolines: Quinolines are a class of heterocyclic aromatic organic compounds that consist of a benzene ring fused to a pyridine ring. They have diverse applications, including their use as antimicrobial agents in the context of 14.4 Mechanisms of Other Antimicrobial Drugs.
Raltegravir: Raltegravir is an antiretroviral drug used to inhibit the integrase enzyme, preventing the integration of HIV DNA into the host cell genome. It is primarily used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS.
Rapivab: Rapivab is an antiviral medication used to treat acute uncomplicated influenza. It works by inhibiting the enzyme neuraminidase, thus preventing the virus from spreading within the body.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS): Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) are chemically reactive molecules containing oxygen. They play a significant role in cell signaling and homeostasis but can also cause cellular damage when present in excess.
Relenza: Relenza is an antiviral drug used to treat and prevent influenza A and B infections. It inhibits the neuraminidase enzyme, which is essential for the virus's replication and spread.
Retrovirus: A retrovirus is an RNA virus that inserts a copy of its genome into the DNA of a host cell, thereby changing the cell's genetic makeup. This process is facilitated by the enzyme reverse transcriptase.
Reverse transcriptase inhibitors: Reverse transcriptase inhibitors are antiviral drugs that inhibit the activity of reverse transcriptase, an enzyme used by retroviruses to replicate their genomes. These inhibitors are crucial in the treatment of HIV/AIDS.
Rhinoviruses: Rhinoviruses are a group of viruses responsible for the common cold, primarily affecting the upper respiratory tract. They are part of the Picornaviridae family and are highly contagious.
Ribavirin: Ribavirin is an antiviral medication used to treat various viral infections by inhibiting viral RNA synthesis. It is commonly used in the treatment of hepatitis C and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections.
Rimantadine: Rimantadine is an antiviral medication used primarily to treat and prevent Influenza A infections. It inhibits viral replication by blocking the M2 ion channel protein in the influenza virus.
Ringworm: Ringworm is a common fungal infection of the skin caused by dermatophytes. It presents as a red, circular rash with clearer skin in the middle.
Ritonavir: Ritonavir is an antiretroviral drug used to treat and prevent HIV/AIDS. It acts as a protease inhibitor, disrupting the replication of the virus.
River blindness: River blindness, also known as onchocerciasis, is a parasitic disease caused by the filarial worm Onchocerca volvulus. It is transmitted through the bites of infected blackflies.
Schistosomiasis: Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease caused by blood flukes (trematodes) of the genus Schistosoma. It primarily affects the urinary and intestinal tracts and is transmitted through contact with contaminated freshwater.
Selective toxicity: Selective toxicity is the ability of a drug to target specific microorganisms without harming the host. This principle is fundamental in developing effective antimicrobial therapies.
Sepsis: Sepsis is a life-threatening condition caused by the body's extreme response to an infection, leading to tissue damage, organ failure, and potentially death. It occurs when chemicals released into the bloodstream to fight an infection trigger widespread inflammation.
Shingles: Shingles, also known as herpes zoster, is a viral infection caused by the reactivation of the varicella-zoster virus (VZV), which also causes chickenpox. It is characterized by a painful rash that typically appears on one side of the body or face.
Simeprevir: Simeprevir is an antiviral drug used to treat hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. It is a protease inhibitor that prevents viral replication.
Sofosbuvir: Sofosbuvir is an antiviral medication used primarily to treat hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections. It functions as a nucleotide analog inhibitor of the HCV RNA polymerase.
Sofosbuvir: Sofosbuvir is a direct-acting antiviral medication used to treat chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. It works by inhibiting the HCV NS5B polymerase, an enzyme essential for viral replication, thereby disrupting the virus's ability to multiply and spread within the host.
Solvaldi: Sovaldi is an antiviral medication used to treat hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. It works by inhibiting the RNA polymerase enzyme, which is essential for viral replication.
Spectrum of activity: Spectrum of activity refers to the range of different microorganisms that an antimicrobial agent can affect. It can be broad-spectrum, targeting a wide variety of pathogens, or narrow-spectrum, targeting specific types.
Spectrum of Activity: The spectrum of activity refers to the range of microorganisms that a particular antimicrobial agent is effective against. It is a crucial concept in understanding the use of chemicals to control microorganisms, the effectiveness of antiseptics and disinfectants, and the mechanisms of other antimicrobial drugs.
Spiramycin: Spiramycin is a macrolide antibiotic used to treat bacterial and parasitic infections. It is particularly effective against Toxoplasma gondii, often prescribed for toxoplasmosis in pregnant women.
Sterols: Sterols are a subgroup of steroids with a hydroxyl group at the 3-position of the A-ring. They play crucial roles in cell membrane structure and function.
Streptomyces avermectinius: Streptomyces avermectinius is a species of actinobacteria known for producing avermectins, which are compounds with potent antiparasitic and insecticidal properties. These compounds are used in both veterinary medicine and agriculture to control parasites and pests.
Strongyloides stercoralis: Strongyloides stercoralis is a parasitic nematode causing strongyloidiasis, primarily infecting the gastrointestinal tract. It can cause both asymptomatic and severe, life-threatening infections.
Strongyloidiasis: Strongyloidiasis is a parasitic infection caused by the nematode Strongyloides stercoralis. It primarily affects the gastrointestinal tract and can lead to severe complications, particularly in immunocompromised individuals.
Sulfadiazine: Sulfadiazine is a sulfonamide antibiotic used to treat various bacterial infections by inhibiting the synthesis of folic acid in bacteria. It is often combined with other drugs to enhance its efficacy.
Sulfadoxine: Sulfadoxine is a long-acting sulfonamide antimicrobial used in combination with other drugs to treat and prevent malaria. It inhibits the enzyme dihydropteroate synthase, thereby interfering with folic acid synthesis in parasites.
Sulfadoxine: Sulfadoxine is a sulfonamide antibiotic that inhibits the synthesis of folic acid, a crucial vitamin required for bacterial cell growth and division. It is commonly used in combination with the antimalarial drug pyrimethamine to treat and prevent malaria infections.
Sulfamethoxazole: Sulfamethoxazole is a sulfonamide antibiotic that inhibits bacterial synthesis of dihydrofolic acid by competing with para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA). It is often used in combination with trimethoprim to treat various bacterial infections, including those of the urinary tract.
Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim: Sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim is a combination antibiotic used to treat various bacterial infections by inhibiting folic acid synthesis. It targets both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Tamiflu: Tamiflu is an antiviral medication used to treat and prevent influenza A and B. It works by inhibiting the neuraminidase enzyme, which is essential for viral replication.
Tapeworm: Tapeworms are parasitic flatworms that inhabit the digestive tract of vertebrates, including humans. They absorb nutrients through their skin and can cause serious health issues.
Terbinafine: Terbinafine is an antifungal medication primarily used to treat fungal infections of the skin and nails. It works by inhibiting the enzyme squalene epoxidase, leading to a deficiency in ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes.
Thioxanthenones: Thioxanthenones are a class of synthetic compounds with antimicrobial properties. They are known for their ability to inhibit DNA synthesis in bacteria.
Tinea corporis: Tinea corporis, commonly known as ringworm, is a superficial fungal infection of the skin caused by dermatophytes. It presents as a red, circular rash with clearer skin in the middle.
Tinea cruris: Tinea cruris, commonly known as jock itch, is a fungal infection of the groin area. It is caused by dermatophytes, a type of fungi that thrive in warm and moist environments.
Tinea pedis: Tinea pedis, commonly known as athlete's foot, is a fungal infection that affects the skin of the feet. It is caused by dermatophytes and typically occurs in warm, moist environments.
Tinea versicolor: Tinea versicolor is a superficial fungal infection caused by the yeast Malassezia. It leads to discolored patches on the skin, often exacerbated by sun exposure.
Toxoplasmosis: Toxoplasmosis is an infection caused by the unicellular eukaryotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii. It primarily affects the circulatory and lymphatic systems, often with mild symptoms in healthy individuals but can cause serious complications in immunocompromised patients and during pregnancy.
Triazole: Triazole is a class of antifungal agents that inhibit the synthesis of ergosterol, an essential component of fungal cell membranes. Triazoles are commonly used to treat a variety of fungal infections.
Trichophyton: Trichophyton is a genus of fungi primarily responsible for dermatophytic infections in humans, such as athlete's foot and ringworm. These fungi invade keratinized tissues including skin, hair, and nails.
Trimethoprim: Trimethoprim is an antibiotic used primarily to treat bacterial infections, particularly in the urogenital and digestive systems. It works by inhibiting bacterial DNA synthesis.
Trypanosomes: Trypanosomes are protozoan parasites known for causing diseases such as African sleeping sickness and Chagas disease. They evade the host's immune system through antigenic variation, making them challenging to treat.
Uridine: Uridine is a nucleoside composed of uracil and ribose, playing a crucial role in RNA synthesis. It also serves as a precursor for the synthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides.
Valley fever: Valley fever, also known as coccidioidomycosis, is a fungal infection caused by Coccidioides species. It primarily affects the lungs but can spread to other parts of the body.
Vidarabine: Vidarabine is an antiviral drug used primarily for the treatment of herpes simplex and varicella-zoster viruses. It works by inhibiting viral DNA synthesis.
Voriconazole: Voriconazole is an antifungal medication used to treat serious fungal infections, including those caused by Aspergillus and Candida species. It works by inhibiting the synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of fungal cell membranes.
Voriconazole: Voriconazole is a broad-spectrum triazole antifungal medication used to treat a variety of fungal infections, including those caused by Aspergillus and Candida species. It is particularly effective in the management of respiratory mycoses and acts by inhibiting the fungal enzyme lanosterol 14α-demethylase, which is crucial for the synthesis of ergosterol, a key component of the fungal cell membrane.
Zanamivir: Zanamivir is an antiviral medication used to treat and prevent influenza A and B. It works by inhibiting the enzyme neuraminidase, which is essential for the virus's replication.
Zidovudine: Zidovudine, also known as azidothymidine (AZT), is a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) used in the treatment of HIV/AIDS. It works by interfering with the reverse transcriptase enzyme, which is essential for the replication of the HIV virus, thereby preventing the virus from multiplying and spreading within the host's body.
Zovirax: Zovirax is an antiviral medication primarily used to treat infections caused by the herpes viruses. It inhibits viral DNA synthesis, reducing the replication of the virus.
β-glucan: β-glucan is a type of polysaccharide found in the cell walls of certain microorganisms, such as fungi and bacteria. It plays important roles in the mechanisms of antimicrobial drugs and the recognition and phagocytosis of pathogens by the immune system.
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Glossary
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