12.1 Microbes and the Tools of Genetic Engineering
5 min read•june 18, 2024
Molecular genetics tools revolutionized our ability to manipulate DNA. From that cut DNA to PCR that amplifies it, these techniques let us clone genes, create , and build genomic libraries. They're the foundation of modern and .
These tools and methods enable precise DNA modification in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Whether it's transforming bacteria, transfecting mammalian cells, or editing genomes with CRISPR, we can now alter genes with incredible specificity. This opens up endless possibilities for research and medical applications.
Molecular Genetics Tools and Techniques
Molecular genetics tools from microorganisms
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- Derived from bacteria protect against viral invasion by cleaving foreign DNA at specific recognition sequences (, )
- Used to cut DNA into fragments for cloning, mapping, and analysis of genetic material
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- Derived from bacteria (E. coli) and () repairs breaks in DNA during replication
- Catalyzes formation of phosphodiester bonds between 3' hydroxyl and 5' phosphate groups of adjacent nucleotides
- Used to join DNA fragments together after restriction digestion to create molecules (, )
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- Small circular DNA molecules found in bacteria (, ) replicate independently of chromosomal DNA
- Contain origin of replication, selectable markers (), and cloning sites for inserting foreign DNA
- Used as to amplify, store, and transfer recombinant DNA in applications (gene therapy, protein production)
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- Utilizes from thermophilic bacterium Thermus aquaticus found in hot springs withstands high temperatures
- Amplifies specific DNA sequences by repeated cycles of denaturation, annealing, and extension generating millions of copies
- Used for DNA fingerprinting, disease diagnosis, and cloning of genes for research and applications (forensics, medical testing)
Process of recombinant DNA creation
- Isolate DNA from source organism containing gene of interest (human gene)
- Cut DNA using that recognize specific sequences (EcoRI cuts at GAATTC)
- Select suitable vector like plasmid with same restriction sites and antibiotic resistance marker ( with ampicillin resistance)
- Cut vector with same restriction endonuclease to create compatible for
- Mix cut DNA fragment and vector together with DNA ligase to insert gene into vector forming recombinant DNA
- Transform recombinant plasmid into host cell like bacteria for amplification and expression (E. coli)
- Plate transformed cells on media with antibiotic to select for those containing recombinant plasmid
- Screen colonies for presence of inserted gene using PCR or restriction analysis to confirm successful cloning ()
DNA introduction in prokaryotes
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- Cells treated with calcium chloride to make membrane permeable and heat shocked to facilitate DNA uptake (42℃)
- Requires cells to be in log phase of growth for efficient (OD600 of 0.4-0.6)
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- High voltage electric field (1-2 kV) applied to cells in conductive buffer creates transient pores in membrane
- Allows uptake of DNA, proteins, and small molecules into cells (plasmids, RNA, enzymes)
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- Donor cell transfers DNA to recipient cell through pilus forming mating bridge (F+ to F-)
- Requires conjugative plasmid in donor encoding transfer genes and origin of transfer (F plasmid, R plasmid)
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- Bacteriophage transfers DNA from one bacterial cell to another during lytic or lysogenic infection cycles
- Can be generalized using any part of bacterial genome () or specialized using specific sequences ()
Genomic libraries vs applications
- Genomic DNA libraries
- Contain random fragments of entire genome of organism generated by partial digestion with restriction enzymes
- Cloned into vectors like or to create comprehensive representation of genetic material (human genome project)
- Used for sequencing and mapping of genomes, identification of disease-associated genes (), and comparative genomics
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- Contain complementary DNA copies of transcripts synthesized using
- Represent expressed genes of organism under specific conditions or in particular tissue (brain cDNA library)
- Used to study patterns, identify rare transcripts, and isolate full-length genes for functional analysis ()
- Expression libraries
- Contain DNA fragments cloned into vectors that allow expression of inserted genes in host cells ( in E. coli)
- Used for production of recombinant proteins, antibodies, and enzymes for research and therapeutic applications (insulin, growth hormone)
- Enable functional screening of libraries for genes encoding proteins with desired activities (novel antibiotics, industrial enzymes)
Methods for eukaryotic DNA introduction
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- DNA mixed with calcium chloride and phosphate buffer forms fine precipitate that adheres to cell surface
- Cells take up DNA precipitate by endocytosis and express transfected genes transiently or stably ()
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- DNA encapsulated in artificial lipid vesicles fuses with cell membrane and delivers contents into cytoplasm
- Cationic lipids interact with negatively charged DNA forming complexes that are readily endocytosed ()
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- Brief high voltage electric pulse creates transient pores in cell membrane allowing entry of DNA and molecules
- Requires optimization of voltage, capacitance, and buffer conditions for each cell type (mammalian cells, plant protoplasts)
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- Fine glass needle used to directly inject DNA into nucleus of individual cells under microscope (oocytes, embryos)
- Allows precise control of amount and location of injected material but is low throughput and requires specialized equipment
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- Recombinant viruses engineered to carry gene of interest infect cells and integrate into genome (, )
- Provides efficient and stable delivery of DNA into wide range of cell types including non-dividing cells (neurons, stem cells)
- Requires careful design of viral vectors to minimize risk of insertional mutagenesis and immune responses in host (replication-defective viruses)
Advanced Genetic Engineering Techniques
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- Precise modification of DNA sequences in living cells using engineered nucleases
- system uses guide RNA to direct Cas9 nuclease to specific genomic loci for targeted DNA cleavage
- Enables gene knockout, insertion, or correction for functional studies and potential therapeutic applications
- Biotechnology applications
- Utilizes genetic engineering techniques to develop products and processes for various industries
- Includes production of recombinant proteins, genetically modified organisms, and gene therapy approaches
- Gene expression analysis
- Studies the regulation and control of gene activity in cells under different conditions
- Techniques like RNA-seq and microarrays allow for genome-wide profiling of transcriptional changes
Key Terms to Review (98)
Agrobacterium tumefaciens: Agrobacterium tumefaciens is a soil bacterium known for its ability to transfer DNA to plants, leading to tumor formation. It is widely used in genetic engineering to introduce new genes into plant genomes.
Anneal: Anneal refers to the process of binding complementary strands of DNA or RNA together to form a double-stranded structure. This is a critical step in various genetic engineering techniques, including PCR and DNA sequencing.
Antibiotic resistance: Antibiotic resistance is the ability of bacteria to survive and grow in the presence of drugs designed to kill them. This occurs through genetic mutations or horizontal gene transfer.
Arber: Arber refers to Werner Arber, a Swiss microbiologist who discovered restriction enzymes, which are crucial tools in genetic engineering. His work laid the foundation for molecular cloning and recombinant DNA technology.
Bacillus: Bacillus is a genus of Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria that are known for their ability to form endospores. They are commonly found in soil and have various applications in biotechnology.
BACs: BACs, or Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes, are large DNA constructs derived from bacterial genomes that can be used as vectors for cloning and manipulating large DNA fragments. They serve as important tools in genetic engineering and microbiology research.
Bacteriophages: Bacteriophages are viruses that infect and replicate within bacteria. They play a crucial role in bacterial genetics and microbial diversity.
BamHI: BamHI is a type II restriction endonuclease enzyme that recognizes and cleaves a specific DNA sequence, $\text{5'-GGATCC-3'}$, leaving behind 'sticky ends' that can be used in genetic engineering and recombinant DNA technology.
Berg: Berg refers to Dr. Paul Berg, a pioneering scientist in genetic engineering who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1980 for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids.
Biotechnology: Biotechnology involves the use of living organisms or their components to develop or make products, often through genetic manipulation. It plays a crucial role in fields like medicine, agriculture, and industrial processes.
Biotechnology: Biotechnology is the use of living organisms or their components to develop products and technologies that improve human life. It encompasses a wide range of applications, including genetic engineering, fermentation, and the production of pharmaceuticals and other biomaterials.
Blue-white screening: Blue-white screening is a molecular biology technique used to identify recombinant bacteria. It distinguishes between colonies with and without plasmid inserts based on color changes in the presence of X-gal.
Blunt ends: Blunt ends are DNA fragments with no overhanging bases at either end. They are produced when DNA is cut straight across by certain restriction enzymes.
Boyer: Herbert Boyer is an American biochemist who co-founded Genentech, the first company to apply genetic engineering techniques for commercial purposes. He is renowned for his pioneering work in recombinant DNA technology.
BRCA1: BRCA1 is a tumor suppressor gene that plays a crucial role in DNA repair and maintaining genomic stability. Mutations in the BRCA1 gene are associated with an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer, particularly breast and ovarian cancer.
Breeding: Breeding is the process of selecting organisms with desirable traits to reproduce, enhancing specific characteristics in offspring. In microbiology, breeding often involves manipulating microbial genetics to achieve desired outcomes.
Calcium Phosphate Transfection: Calcium phosphate transfection is a technique used in molecular biology and genetic engineering to introduce foreign DNA into eukaryotic cells. It involves the formation of a calcium phosphate-DNA co-precipitate that is then taken up by the target cells, allowing the DNA to be expressed within the cellular environment.
CDNA Libraries: cDNA libraries are collections of complementary DNA (cDNA) molecules that represent the expressed genes of an organism. cDNA is synthesized from mature mRNA molecules, providing a way to study the active genes and gene expression patterns in a cell or tissue of interest.
Clones: Clones are genetically identical cells or organisms derived from a single parent cell or organism. In genetic engineering, cloning is used to create copies of DNA fragments, cells, or entire organisms.
Cohen: Cohen refers to Stanley N. Cohen, a pioneering scientist in the field of genetic engineering known for his work on recombinant DNA technology. Together with Herbert Boyer, Cohen developed techniques that allowed for the cloning and manipulation of genes in bacteria.
Complementary DNA (cDNA): Complementary DNA (cDNA) is a form of DNA synthesized from a messenger RNA (mRNA) template through the action of the enzyme reverse transcriptase. cDNA is often used in cloning and gene expression studies because it represents only the expressed genes of an organism.
Conjugation: Conjugation is a process where genetic material is transferred between bacterial cells through direct contact. It often involves the formation of a pilus to facilitate the exchange of plasmids.
Conjugation: Conjugation is a process of genetic exchange between two prokaryotic cells, typically bacteria, where genetic material is transferred from one cell to another. This process allows for the sharing of genetic information and the acquisition of new traits, contributing to the genetic diversity of asexual prokaryotes.
CRISPR-Cas9: CRISPR-Cas9 is a gene-editing technology that uses a guide RNA and the Cas9 enzyme to precisely target and modify specific DNA sequences within a genome. It has revolutionized genetic engineering and has widespread applications in fields like microbiology, pharmaceuticals, and gene therapy.
DNA Ligase: DNA ligase is an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the 3' hydroxyl group of one DNA strand and the 5' phosphate group of another, effectively sealing breaks or nicks in the DNA backbone. This process is essential for DNA replication, repair, and recombination.
EcoRI: EcoRI is a type of restriction enzyme, a protein that can recognize and cleave specific DNA sequences. It is commonly used as a tool in genetic engineering and molecular biology to cut DNA molecules at specific sites, enabling the manipulation and analysis of genetic material.
Electroporation: Electroporation is a technique that uses electrical pulses to create temporary pores in cell membranes, allowing the introduction of foreign DNA into cells. It is commonly used in genetic engineering to facilitate the transformation of microbial cells.
Electroporation: Electroporation is a technique used in genetic engineering to introduce foreign genetic material, such as DNA or RNA, into cells by temporarily creating pores in the cell membrane using an electric field. This process allows the genetic material to enter the cell and potentially integrate into the host's genome, enabling the expression of new traits or functions.
Escherichia coli: Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacterium commonly found in the intestines of warm-blooded organisms. While most strains are harmless, some can cause serious food poisoning and infections.
EST Sequencing: EST (Expressed Sequence Tag) sequencing is a technique used in molecular biology to rapidly identify and sequence expressed genes within a genome. It involves the partial sequencing of cDNA clones derived from mRNA transcripts, providing a snapshot of the genes actively expressed in a particular cell, tissue, or organism under specific conditions.
F pilus: An F pilus, or sex pilus, is a hair-like appendage found on the surface of many bacteria that facilitates the transfer of DNA between cells during bacterial conjugation. It is primarily composed of the protein pilin and encoded by the F (fertility) plasmid.
F Plasmid: An F plasmid, also known as the fertility factor, is a type of extrachromosomal genetic element found in certain bacteria. It is a circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that can replicate independently of the host chromosome and is responsible for the conjugation process, allowing for the horizontal transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells.
F plasmids: F plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA elements in bacteria that facilitate the transfer of genetic material through conjugation. They play a crucial role in horizontal gene transfer and antibiotic resistance.
Flavr Savr: Flavr Savr is the first genetically engineered tomato to be granted a license for human consumption. It was designed to have a longer shelf life by suppressing the polygalacturonase enzyme responsible for fruit softening.
Gene Cloning: Gene cloning is the process of creating multiple, identical copies of a specific DNA sequence or gene. It involves isolating a gene of interest, inserting it into a vector or carrier molecule, and then replicating the gene within a host organism, such as bacteria or yeast, to produce large quantities of the desired genetic material.
Gene Expression: Gene expression is the process by which the genetic information encoded in DNA is converted into the functional products, such as proteins or RNA molecules, that carry out the biological activities of a cell. It is the fundamental mechanism by which cells use the information stored in genes to direct the synthesis of the gene products needed for their proper function and survival.
Gene gun: A gene gun is a device used to deliver exogenous DNA into cells by bombarding them with high-velocity microprojectiles coated with genetic material. It is commonly used in genetic engineering and biotechnology for transforming plant, fungal, and bacterial cells.
Genetic engineering: Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism's genome using biotechnology to alter its characteristics. This includes techniques such as gene cloning, CRISPR, and recombinant DNA technology.
Genetic Engineering: Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology. It involves the insertion, deletion, or modification of specific genetic material to alter an organism's characteristics and capabilities.
Genome Editing: Genome editing, also known as gene editing, is a powerful technology that allows for precise and targeted modifications of an organism's genetic material. This technique enables the addition, removal, or alteration of specific DNA sequences within a genome, offering the potential to treat genetic disorders, enhance desired traits, and even create novel organisms.
Genomic library: A genomic library is a collection of DNA fragments that represent the entire genome of an organism. These fragments are stored in vectors within host cells to facilitate cloning and analysis.
HEK293 cells: HEK293 cells are a specific cell line derived from human embryonic kidney cells that have been transformed with adenovirus DNA. They are widely used in biological research, particularly in the fields of molecular biology, virology, and genetic engineering.
Horizontal gene transfer: Horizontal gene transfer is the movement of genetic material between organisms other than by the vertical transmission of DNA from parent to offspring. It plays a significant role in the evolution and adaptation of microbes.
Hybridization: Hybridization is the process of forming a double-stranded nucleic acid from two complementary single strands of DNA or RNA. It is a fundamental technique in genetic engineering and molecular biology.
Insulin: Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates blood glucose levels by facilitating the uptake of glucose into cells. It plays a crucial role in energy metabolism and storage.
Lambda: Lambda is a bacteriophage, a virus that infects bacteria, specifically E. coli. It is widely used in genetic engineering due to its ability to integrate into the host genome.
Lambda Phage: Lambda phage is a type of bacteriophage, a virus that infects and replicates within bacterial cells. It is a well-studied model organism that has provided important insights into viral life cycles, genetic engineering, and the interactions between viruses and their bacterial hosts.
Lentiviruses: Lentiviruses are a genus of retroviruses that are characterized by their slow replication and the chronic, persistent infections they cause in their hosts. They are known for their ability to evade the host's immune system and establish lifelong infections.
Ligation: Ligation is the process of joining two strands of DNA together using an enzyme called DNA ligase. It is essential in genetic engineering to insert a specific DNA fragment into a vector.
Lipofectamine: Lipofectamine is a cationic lipid-based transfection reagent used to efficiently deliver genetic material, such as DNA or RNA, into eukaryotic cells. It is a widely used tool in molecular biology and genetic engineering to study gene expression, silence target genes, or introduce foreign genetic material into cells.
Liposome-Mediated Transfection: Liposome-mediated transfection is a technique used in genetic engineering to deliver genetic material, such as DNA or RNA, into cells by encapsulating it within lipid-based vesicles called liposomes. This method allows for the efficient introduction of foreign genetic material into target cells, enabling researchers to study gene expression, function, and regulation.
Microinjection: Microinjection is a technique used to introduce foreign DNA or other substances directly into a cell using a fine needle. It is commonly employed in genetic engineering to manipulate microbial genomes.
Microinjection: Microinjection is a technique used in genetic engineering and biotechnology to introduce genetic material, such as DNA, RNA, or other molecules, directly into a target cell or organism. It involves the precise delivery of small volumes of material into individual cells using a specialized micropipette or micromanipulator.
Molecular cloning: Molecular cloning is a method used to create copies of a specific DNA sequence, allowing for the study and manipulation of genes. It involves inserting the target DNA into a vector, which is then introduced into a host organism.
Molecule: A molecule is a group of atoms bonded together, representing the smallest fundamental unit of a chemical compound that can take part in a chemical reaction. In microbiology, molecules play crucial roles in genetic engineering and microbial genetics.
MRNA: mRNA (messenger RNA) is a type of RNA that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where proteins are synthesized. It acts as a template for protein synthesis during translation.
Multiple cloning site (MCS): A multiple cloning site (MCS) is a short segment of DNA containing multiple unique restriction sites. It is used in genetic engineering to facilitate the insertion of foreign DNA into a plasmid vector.
P1 Phage: P1 phage is a temperate bacteriophage, a virus that infects and replicates within bacterial cells. It is commonly used as a model system to study the viral life cycle and as a tool in genetic engineering for its ability to transduce genetic material between bacterial hosts.
PBR322: pBR322 is a widely used bacterial plasmid that serves as a key tool in genetic engineering. It is a small, circular DNA molecule that can replicate independently within bacterial cells and is commonly used as a vector for cloning and expressing foreign genes.
PET Vector: The pET vector is a widely used expression system for the production of recombinant proteins in Escherichia coli (E. coli). It is a plasmid-based system that allows for the high-level expression of target genes under the control of a strong, tightly regulated promoter, enabling efficient protein production in bacterial hosts.
Phagemids: Phagemids are hybrid vectors that incorporate elements of both plasmids and bacteriophages. They enable efficient cloning and expression of foreign genes in microbial systems.
Plasmid vectors: Plasmid vectors are small, circular DNA molecules used in genetic engineering to transfer genes into a host organism. They can replicate independently of the chromosomal DNA within bacterial cells.
Plasmids: Plasmids are small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecules that exist independently of the chromosomal DNA in bacteria. They often carry genes beneficial for survival, such as antibiotic resistance.
Plasmids: Plasmids are small, circular, extrachromosomal DNA molecules found in many bacteria and some eukaryotic cells. They are distinct from the main chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently, often carrying genes that provide beneficial traits to the host organism.
Polylinker site: A polylinker site, also known as a multiple cloning site (MCS), is a short DNA sequence containing multiple unique restriction enzyme cut sites. It allows for the easy insertion of foreign DNA into a plasmid vector.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a powerful molecular biology technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences exponentially. It is a fundamental tool in genetic engineering and microbiology, enabling the rapid and precise replication of DNA fragments for various applications, such as diagnostics, forensics, and research.
PUC19: pUC19 is a small, circular plasmid vector commonly used in cloning and genetic engineering. It contains an origin of replication, multiple cloning sites, and a gene for ampicillin resistance.
R Plasmid: An R plasmid, also known as a resistance plasmid, is a type of extrachromosomal genetic element found in bacteria that confers resistance to one or more antibiotics. These self-replicating, circular DNA molecules are crucial tools in the field of genetic engineering, enabling the transfer of antibiotic resistance genes between different bacterial strains and species.
Recognition site: A recognition site is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA that is identified and cut by restriction enzymes. These sites are crucial for genetic engineering and molecular cloning techniques.
Recombinant DNA: Recombinant DNA is a form of artificial DNA that is created by combining two or more sequences that would not normally occur together. It is often used in genetic engineering to manipulate genes for research, medicine, and biotechnology.
Recombinant DNA: Recombinant DNA is the artificial combination of DNA sequences from different sources to create a new genetic material. It is a fundamental tool in genetic engineering, allowing scientists to manipulate and study the genetic makeup of organisms.
Recombinant DNA technology: Recombinant DNA technology involves combining DNA from two different sources to create new genetic combinations. This is achieved using molecular cloning and other genetic engineering techniques.
Reporter gene: A reporter gene is a gene that researchers attach to a regulatory sequence of another gene to study the expression of the target gene. It produces an easily measurable product, allowing scientists to monitor and quantify genetic activity.
Restriction endonucleases: Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences known as recognition sites. They are essential tools in molecular biology for gene cloning and DNA analysis.
Restriction Endonucleases: Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that can recognize and cleave specific DNA sequences, known as restriction sites, within a DNA molecule. These enzymes are essential tools in the field of genetic engineering, allowing for the manipulation and analysis of genetic material.
Restriction enzymes: Restriction enzymes are proteins that cut DNA at specific sequences, creating fragments with sticky or blunt ends. They are essential tools in genetic engineering for cloning and DNA manipulation.
Retroviruses: Retroviruses are a unique class of viruses that use RNA as their genetic material and employ a reverse transcriptase enzyme to convert their RNA into DNA, which is then integrated into the host cell's genome. This distinctive life cycle and genetic structure allows retroviruses to persistently infect their hosts and utilize the cellular machinery for their own replication.
Reverse transcriptase: Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme that synthesizes complementary DNA (cDNA) from an RNA template. It is essential for the replication of retroviruses, including HIV.
Reverse Transcriptase: Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme found in retroviruses, such as HIV, that is responsible for converting the viral RNA genome into DNA. This process is a crucial step in the viral life cycle, allowing the viral genetic material to be integrated into the host cell's genome.
Shuttle vectors: Shuttle vectors are plasmids engineered to replicate in two different host organisms, typically a prokaryote and a eukaryote. They are essential tools for transferring genetic material between different biological systems.
Sticky ends: Sticky ends are short, single-stranded overhangs generated by the staggered cutting of DNA by certain restriction enzymes. These ends can easily pair with complementary sequences, facilitating the ligation of DNA fragments.
T4: T4, also known as the T4 bacteriophage, is a virus that infects and replicates within Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria. It is a crucial tool used in the field of genetic engineering, particularly in the context of microbes and their applications.
Taq DNA polymerase: Taq DNA polymerase is a thermostable DNA polymerase enzyme derived from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus aquaticus. It is a crucial tool in the field of genetic engineering, enabling the amplification of DNA through a process known as the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).
Transduction: Transduction is the process by which bacterial DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another via a bacteriophage. It plays a significant role in horizontal gene transfer and genetic diversity among prokaryotes.
Transduction: Transduction is the process by which genetic material is transferred from one organism to another through the action of a virus or viral vector. This process can have significant implications in the context of viral life cycles, genetic diversity in asexual prokaryotes, genetic engineering, and the development of drug resistance.
Transfection: Transfection is the process of introducing foreign nucleic acids into eukaryotic cells to study gene function or produce recombinant proteins. It is a critical technique in molecular biology for genetic engineering and research.
Transformation: Transformation is the genetic alteration of a prokaryotic cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous genetic material. This process allows for genetic diversity in asexual prokaryotes.
Transformation: Transformation is the process by which genetic material, such as DNA, is introduced into a cell, allowing the cell to acquire new genetic traits or characteristics. This process is a fundamental concept in microbiology and genetic engineering, as it enables the modification and manipulation of the genetic makeup of organisms.
Transgenic: A transgenic organism contains a gene or genes that have been artificially inserted instead of the organism acquiring them through reproduction. These genes can come from another species, making the organism genetically modified.
Transgenic plants: Transgenic plants are genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that have genes inserted into their genome from other species, often to introduce desirable traits. They are commonly used in agriculture to enhance resistance to pests, diseases, and environmental conditions.
Tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmids: Tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmids are circular DNA molecules found in Agrobacterium tumefaciens that can transfer genetic material to plant cells, causing tumor formation. They are widely used in genetic engineering to introduce foreign genes into plants.
Vectors: Vectors are DNA molecules used as vehicles to transfer genetic material into a host cell in genetic engineering. They are essential tools for cloning, sequencing, and manipulating genes.
Villa-Komaroff: Lydia Villa-Komaroff is a molecular biologist known for her pioneering work in genetic engineering, particularly in the production of insulin using recombinant DNA technology. She was part of the team that demonstrated bacteria could be induced to produce human proteins.
Viral Transduction: Viral transduction is the process by which a virus introduces its genetic material into a host cell, hijacking the cell's machinery to produce more viral particles. This process is a key tool used in genetic engineering, allowing researchers to manipulate the genome of organisms by delivering desired genetic material through viral vectors.
Viral vectors: Viral vectors are tools commonly used in genetic engineering to deliver genetic material into cells. They exploit the natural ability of viruses to infect and introduce their DNA or RNA into host cells.
X-gal: X-gal is a substrate used in molecular biology to detect the presence of β-galactosidase enzyme activity. It turns blue when cleaved by this enzyme, providing a visual marker for gene expression.
Xenopus laevis: Xenopus laevis, commonly known as the African clawed frog, is a model organism frequently used in genetic engineering and developmental biology. Its oocytes are particularly valuable for studying gene expression and protein function.
YACs: YACs, or Yeast Artificial Chromosomes, are a type of vector used in genetic engineering to clone and manipulate large DNA fragments. They serve as a tool for studying the structure and function of genomes by allowing the insertion and propagation of sizable genetic material within the host organism, which is typically the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.