| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| context | The historical circumstances, conditions, and factors that led to and shaped European exploration and contact with the Americas. |
| European encounters | The meetings and interactions between European explorers and the indigenous peoples of the Americas beginning in 1491. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Atlantic seaboard | The coastal region along the Atlantic Ocean in North America where Native American societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies. |
| Great Basin | An arid region in the western United States where Native American societies developed mobile lifestyles in response to environmental conditions. |
| Great Plains | Grassland regions in western North America where Native American societies adapted to aridity through largely mobile lifestyles. |
| hunting and gathering | An economic subsistence strategy based on hunting animals and collecting wild plants, practiced by societies in the Northwest and California. |
| irrigation | The artificial supply of water to land or crops, used by Southwest societies to support agriculture in arid environments. |
| maize cultivation | The practice of growing maize (corn) as a crop, which spread from Mexico northward and supported economic development and settlement in North American societies. |
| Mississippi River Valley | A region in North America where some Native American societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies and permanent settlements. |
| mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies | Economic systems that combined farming with hunting and gathering, developed by societies in the Northeast, Mississippi River Valley, and Atlantic seaboard regions. |
| mobile lifestyles | A way of life characterized by regular movement from place to place, adopted by societies in the Great Basin and western Great Plains in response to limited resources. |
| permanent villages | Settled communities where people lived year-round, supported by mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies in the Northeast and Mississippi River Valley. |
| settled communities | Permanent or semi-permanent human settlements, supported in some areas by abundant ocean resources in the Northwest and California regions. |
| social diversification | The development of different social classes, roles, and structures within a society, often resulting from increased economic productivity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Christianity | The religious faith that European nations sought to spread to indigenous populations in the New World as a motivation for exploration and conquest. |
| conquest | The process of subjugating and taking control of territories and peoples, particularly European military campaigns in the New World. |
| economic competition | Rivalry among European nations to acquire resources, trade routes, and colonial territories for economic gain. |
| exploration | The act of traveling to and investigating unfamiliar territories, in this context referring to European voyages to the Americas. |
| military competition | Rivalry among European nations to establish military power and dominance through exploration and territorial conquest. |
| New World | European term for the Americas, including North and South America, newly encountered by Europeans during the Age of Exploration. |
| wealth | Valuable resources, precious metals, and economic riches that European nations sought to obtain from the New World. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| capitalism | An economic system based on private ownership, market competition, and the accumulation of capital for profit. |
| Columbian Exchange | The transfer of crops, animals, diseases, and ideas between Europe and the Americas following Columbus's 1492 voyage, which transformed both continents. |
| epidemics | Widespread outbreaks of disease, particularly Old World diseases like smallpox that devastated Native American populations lacking immunity. |
| feudalism | A medieval economic and social system based on land ownership and hierarchical relationships between lords and vassals. |
| joint-stock companies | Business enterprises in which multiple investors pooled capital and shared profits, used to finance exploration and trade ventures. |
| maritime technology | Innovations in ship design and navigation tools that improved European seafaring capabilities during the Age of Exploration. |
| native populations | The indigenous peoples of the Americas who inhabited the continents before European contact and colonization. |
| Spanish conquest | The military campaigns and colonization efforts by Spain in the Americas following 1492, resulting in the establishment of Spanish colonial control. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| caste system | A hierarchical social structure developed by the Spanish that categorized and defined the status of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in their empire. |
| encomienda system | A Spanish colonial labor system that granted colonists control over Native American workers to support agriculture and resource extraction. |
| enslaved Africans | Africans forcibly brought to Spanish colonial territories to labor in plantation agriculture and mining operations. |
| plantation-based agriculture | Large-scale agricultural production focused on cash crops, dependent on enslaved or coerced labor in Spanish colonial economies. |
| precious metals | Valuable mineral resources such as gold and silver that were extracted and exported from Spanish colonial territories. |
| social and economic structures | The organized systems of social hierarchy and economic organization that developed in Spanish colonial territories over time. |
| Spanish Empire | The territorial and political dominion established by Spain in North America and other regions during the colonial period. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| cultural exchange | The adoption and adaptation of useful aspects of culture between Europeans and Native Americans over time. |
| diplomatic negotiations | Formal discussions and agreements between European and Native American leaders to resolve conflicts and establish terms of interaction. |
| economic prosperity | The material well-being and wealth that Native Americans sought to maintain and defend. |
| gender roles | Socially defined expectations and behaviors associated with being male or female in a particular society. |
| land use | Different approaches to utilizing and managing land, a key point of divergence between European and Native American perspectives. |
| military resistance | Armed opposition by Native Americans against European encroachment on their lands and demands for labor. |
| mutual misunderstandings | Failures in communication and comprehension between Europeans and Native Americans as each group attempted to interpret the other's actions and intentions. |
| political sovereignty | The right of Native American peoples to govern themselves and maintain independent political authority. |
| racial justifications | Arguments based on racial categories used by Europeans to justify the enslavement and subordination of Africans and Native Americans. |
| religion | Systems of faith and worship that shaped European and Native American societies and their interactions. |
| subjugation | The process of bringing Africans and Native Americans under European control and domination. |
| worldviews | Fundamental perspectives and beliefs about the world, including views on religion, gender roles, family structures, land use, and power. |