The East-West Schism split Christianity in 1054, driven by theological differences and political rivalries. This divide set the stage for future conflicts and shaped the religious landscape of medieval Europe.
Pope Urban II's call for the First Crusade in 1095 marked a turning point. His promise of spiritual rewards for reclaiming the Holy Land sparked enthusiasm across Europe, leading to a massive military expedition eastward.
The Church and the Call to Crusade
East-West Schism Factors
- Theological differences
- Filioque clause controversy Western Church believed Holy Spirit proceeded from both Father and Son while Eastern Church believed only from Father led to disagreements on nature of Trinity
- Iconoclasm Eastern Church opposed use of religious images and icons viewing them as idolatry while Western Church supported veneration of images as aids to devotion
- Political and cultural differences
- Growing rivalry between Pope in Rome and Patriarch of Constantinople over authority and jurisdiction in Christian world
- Language barrier Western Church used Latin in liturgy and theology while Eastern Church used Greek hindering communication and understanding
- Mutual excommunication
- In 1054, Pope Leo IX's delegation excommunicated Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerularius over theological and jurisdictional disputes
- Patriarch Michael, in turn, excommunicated papal delegation leading to formal break in communion between churches
- The Great Schism of 1054
- Formalized division between Roman Catholic Church centered in Rome and Eastern Orthodox Church centered in Constantinople persists to this day
Pope Urban II's First Crusade Call
- Council of Clermont in 1095
- Pope Urban II delivered sermon calling for military expedition to Holy Land (Jerusalem and surrounding areas) to reclaim it from Muslim control
- Motivations for First Crusade
- Reclaim Jerusalem and Holy Land from Muslim control as they were sacred sites for Christianity (Church of Holy Sepulchre, Via Dolorosa)
- Protect Christian pilgrims visiting Holy Land who faced harassment and attacks from Muslim rulers
- Respond to Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos's request for military aid against Seljuk Turks who had conquered much of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey)
- Pope Urban II's promises
- Spiritual rewards for Crusade participants
- Remission of sins all past sins forgiven for those who took up the cross
- Guaranteed entry into heaven for those who died fighting in Crusade as martyrs for faith
- Spiritual rewards for Crusade participants
- Response to call
- Enthusiastic response from both nobility and common people across Europe (France, Germany, Italy)
- First Crusade began in 1096 with armies marching overland to Constantinople before proceeding to Holy Land
Religiously Sanctioned Warfare Concepts
- Christianity and just war concept
- Saint Augustine's just war theory
- War could be justified if met certain criteria
- Just cause such as self-defense or protecting the innocent
- Right intention to restore peace and justice, not for conquest or revenge
- Legitimate authority declared by proper governing authorities, not private individuals
- Proportionality expected benefits must outweigh expected evils and destruction
- Last resort all peaceful means of resolving conflict must be exhausted first
- War could be justified if met certain criteria
- Crusades as extension of just war theory
- Viewed as defensive war to protect Christian lands and pilgrims from Muslim aggression
- Seen as penitential act and means of salvation for participants who were promised spiritual rewards
- Saint Augustine's just war theory
- Islam and jihad concept
- Two types of jihad
- Greater jihad internal spiritual struggle against one's own sins, temptations, and ego to purify the soul
- Lesser jihad external physical struggle against enemies of Islam to defend the faith and protect the Muslim community
- Conditions for engaging in lesser jihad
- Self-defense against aggression when Muslim lands or people are attacked
- Defending freedom to practice Islam when it is prohibited or oppressed
- Protecting weak and oppressed such as the poor, orphans, and refugees
- Two types of jihad
- Similarities and differences
- Both Christianity and Islam have concepts that can justify warfare under certain circumstances as a last resort
- However, specific criteria and motivations differ
- Christianity focuses on just cause, right intention, and legitimate authority
- Islam focuses on self-defense, defending freedom of religion, and protecting the oppressed