Glossary

13.2 The Seljuk Migration and the Call from the East

5 min read•june 21, 2024

The rose to power in 750 CE, ushering in a golden age of Islamic culture. They moved the capital to Baghdad, fostering advancements in science, math, and medicine. However, internal challenges and rival powers led to the caliphate's decline.

As the Abbasids weakened, new Islamic powers emerged. The in North Africa and the in Anatolia challenged Abbasid authority. This fragmentation of the Islamic world had lasting impacts on political and religious dynamics in the region.

The Abbasid Caliphate and Rival Islamic Powers

Abbasid Caliphate rise, decline, cultural achievements, internal challenges

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  • Rise of the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258 CE)
    • Overthrew the Umayyad Dynasty in 750 CE after a series of revolts and battles
    • Shifted the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, a newly founded city along the Tigris River
    • Centralized power and established a more inclusive Islamic empire by incorporating diverse ethnic and religious groups into the administration
  • Cultural achievements during the Abbasid Golden Age
    • Patronage of arts, literature, and sciences led to a flourishing of intellectual and artistic pursuits
    • Translation of Greek, Persian, and Indian works into Arabic made ancient knowledge accessible to Islamic scholars
    • Advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine
      • Development of algebra by al-Khwarizmi, which introduced the concept of variables and equations
      • Astronomical observations and calculations by al-Biruni, including accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference and the length of the solar year
      • Medical encyclopedia, "The Canon of Medicine," by Ibn Sina (Avicenna), which became a standard medical text in Europe for centuries
  • Internal challenges and decline
    • Decentralization of power and rise of regional dynasties weakened the authority of the Abbasid caliphs
      • Tahirid, Saffarid, and Samanid dynasties in Persia and asserted their autonomy while nominally acknowledging Abbasid suzerainty
      • Tulunid and Ikhshidid dynasties in Egypt and Syria challenged Abbasid control over these regions
    • Weakening of the Abbasid Caliphate's authority due to the growing power of the Turkish slave soldiers (mamluks) and the Buyid dynasty in Iraq and Iran
    • Economic decline due to trade disruptions caused by political instability and agricultural issues such as the salinization of irrigated lands in Mesopotamia
    • Sack of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258 CE, ending the Abbasid Caliphate and destroying the city's cultural and intellectual heritage

Rival Islamic powers Fatimids, Seljuk Turks impact fragmentation Islamic world

  • Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171 CE)
    • Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty that challenged Abbasid authority by claiming descent from Fatima, daughter of Prophet Muhammad
    • Established in North Africa and later conquered Egypt, controlling the lucrative trade routes of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean
    • Founded the city of Cairo as their capital, which became a center of learning and culture
    • Promoted Isma'ili Shi'a Islam and challenged Sunni orthodoxy, leading to religious and political tensions with the Abbasids and other Sunni powers
    • Engaged in conflicts with the Abbasids and later the Seljuk Turks, who sought to assert Sunni dominance in the region
  • Seljuk Turks (11th-12th centuries CE)
    • Turkic nomadic people who converted to Sunni Islam and migrated from Central Asia into Persia and Mesopotamia
    • Established the , which stretched from Central Asia to Anatolia (modern-day Turkey)
    • Served as a barrier against the Byzantines and Fatimids, protecting the Abbasid Caliphate and Sunni Islam
    • Patronized Sunni Islamic institutions and scholars, promoting the development of (religious schools) and the codification of Islamic law (Sharia)
  • Fragmentation of the Islamic world
    • Competing caliphates and dynasties (Abbasids, Fatimids, Umayyads in Spain) weakened Islamic unity and led to political and religious rivalries
    • Religious and political divisions between Sunni and Shi'a Muslims intensified, leading to sectarian conflicts and the formation of distinct religious identities
    • Decentralization of power and rise of regional powers (Ghaznavids, , Samanids) challenged the authority of the caliphates and contributed to political fragmentation
    • Vulnerability to external threats, such as the Crusades and Mongol invasions, increased as a result of internal divisions and weakened central authority

The Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Threat

Byzantine Empire struggles external threats Seljuk Turks, internal conflicts, Battle of Manzikert, call for Crusades

  • Byzantine Empire's external threats
    • Seljuk Turks' expansion into Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) posed a significant threat to Byzantine territorial integrity
      • Seljuk victories against Byzantine forces at the battles of Kapetron (1048) and Manzikert (1071) demonstrated their military prowess
      • Establishment of the in Anatolia following the , which became a powerful rival to the Byzantines
    • Normans in southern Italy and Sicily launched invasions of Byzantine territories in the Balkans and Greece
    • Pechenegs and Cumans, nomadic Turkic peoples from the steppes, raided Byzantine lands in the Balkans and threatened the empire's northern frontiers
  • Internal conflicts within the Byzantine Empire
    • Political instability and power struggles among the aristocracy and the imperial family weakened the empire's ability to respond to external threats
    • Religious controversies, such as the Iconoclasm debate over the use of religious images, divided Byzantine society and led to internal strife
    • Economic challenges and the decline of the theme system, a military-administrative structure that provided soldiers and revenue, strained the empire's resources
  • Battle of Manzikert (1071 CE)
    • Decisive battle between the Byzantines under Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes and the Seljuk Turks led by Sultan Alp Arslan near the town of Manzikert in eastern Anatolia
    • Byzantine defeat and capture of Emperor Romanos IV, who was later released after agreeing to pay a large ransom and an annual tribute to the Seljuks
    • Seljuk Turks' consolidation of power in Anatolia following the battle, establishing the Sultanate of Rum and gradually expanding their control over the region
    • Loss of Byzantine control over most of Anatolia, which had been a crucial source of manpower, resources, and strategic depth for the empire
  • Call for Crusades
    • Byzantine Emperor ' appeal to for military aid against the Seljuk Turks, seeking to regain lost territories and protect Christian pilgrims in the Holy Land
    • Pope Urban II's call for the at the Council of Clermont in 1095 CE, urging Western European nobles and knights to come to the aid of the Byzantine Empire and liberate the Holy Land from Muslim rule
      • Religious motivation to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim rule, particularly the city of Jerusalem and its sacred sites
      • Promise of spiritual rewards for participants, including the remission of sins and the assurance of salvation
    • Mobilization of Western European nobles and knights to support the Byzantine Empire and fight against the Seljuk Turks, leading to the formation of the Crusader states in the Levant and a temporary respite for the Byzantines

Key Terms to Review (22)

Abbasid Caliphate: The Abbasid Caliphate was the third caliphate in Islamic history, established in 750 CE after the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate. It is known for its significant contributions to culture, science, and trade, fostering a golden age of Islamic civilization that connected diverse regions across the Indian Ocean and beyond.
Alexios I Komnenos: Alexios I Komnenos was a Byzantine emperor who reigned from 1081 to 1118, known for his efforts to stabilize the Byzantine Empire and respond to the growing threats from the Seljuk Turks. His reign marked the beginning of the Komnenian dynasty and was crucial in the context of the Seljuk migration and the call for Western aid, which ultimately led to the First Crusade.
Battle of Manzikert: The Battle of Manzikert, fought in 1071, was a significant conflict between the Byzantine Empire and the Seljuk Turks that resulted in a decisive Seljuk victory. This battle marked a turning point in the power dynamics of the region, leading to the decline of Byzantine control over Anatolia and paving the way for Turkish settlement and influence in the area.
Buyids: The Buyids were a Shia dynasty that rose to power in the 10th century, primarily known for their control over Persia and the Abbasid Caliphate. They played a crucial role in the Islamization process and influenced religious rule under Islam by promoting Shia Islam and weakening Sunni authority, especially in Baghdad.
Central Asia: Central Asia is a region in the heart of the Asian continent, characterized by its vast steppes, deserts, and mountain ranges. This area has historically served as a crucial crossroads for trade, culture, and migration, particularly during the era of the Silk Road. Its geographical position made it a key player in the movements of various nomadic tribes and empires, notably during the Seljuk Migration, which had profound implications for the political and cultural landscape of the region.
East-West Schism: The East-West Schism, also known as the Great Schism, refers to the split between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church that formally occurred in 1054. This division arose due to theological, political, and cultural differences, culminating in disputes over papal authority and the nature of the Holy Spirit. The schism had significant consequences, shaping religious identities and political alliances in medieval Europe and influencing the calls for crusades.
Emirates: Emirates are territories or regions governed by an emir, who is a high-ranking political and military leader in Islamic countries. The concept of emirates is essential to understanding the political organization and administration during the time of the Seljuk Migration, as various emirates played a pivotal role in the expansion and establishment of Seljuk power across the Middle East.
Fatimids: The Fatimids were a significant Islamic dynasty that ruled from the late 9th century to the 12th century, known for establishing a caliphate that claimed descent from Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. Their empire extended across North Africa, the Mediterranean, and into parts of the Middle East, contributing to both cultural and political developments during their reign.
First Crusade: The First Crusade was a military expedition initiated by Western European Christians from 1096 to 1099, aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and other holy sites in the Near East from Muslim control. This movement was fueled by religious fervor and a call for help from the Byzantine Empire, which was facing threats from the Seljuk Turks. The successful capture of Jerusalem in 1099 marked a significant moment in the history of Christian-Muslim relations and laid the groundwork for future crusades.
Ghaznavid Empire: The Ghaznavid Empire was a medieval Islamic state that existed from the late 10th to the 12th century, primarily in what is now Afghanistan and parts of Iran, Pakistan, and India. It emerged from the power struggles of the region and became significant for its military conquests, cultural achievements, and the spread of Islam into the Indian subcontinent, especially during a time when the Seljuks were migrating and establishing their influence in the east.
Great Seljuk Empire: The Great Seljuk Empire was a medieval Turko-Persian state that emerged in the 11th century and played a vital role in the political landscape of the Middle East, particularly in its interactions with the Byzantine Empire and the Crusaders. The empire's expansion was marked by significant military conquests and administrative reforms that helped to unite various territories under a centralized authority.
Iqta system: The iqta system was a land grant system used by the Seljuk Empire and later in the Islamic world, where land was assigned to individuals, known as muqta, in return for military service and tax collection. This system allowed the state to manage its territories efficiently while ensuring loyalty from local leaders, which was especially important during the Seljuk migration and their expansion into new regions.
Madrasas: Madrasas are educational institutions in the Islamic world, primarily focused on teaching Islamic theology and law, as well as various subjects such as literature, science, and philosophy. These schools have historically played a vital role in the cultural and intellectual life of the Muslim community, contributing to the spread of knowledge and the development of Islamic scholarship.
Nizamiyya: Nizamiyya refers to a network of educational institutions established in the 11th century by the Seljuk Empire, designed to promote Islamic learning and scholarship. These schools became centers of intellectual life and were crucial for the dissemination of knowledge, particularly in Islamic jurisprudence, theology, and philosophy, reflecting the Seljuk's commitment to education as a means to consolidate power and influence.
Nomadic tribes: Nomadic tribes are groups of people who move from one place to another rather than settling permanently in one location. These tribes often follow seasonal patterns in search of food, water, and grazing land for their livestock. Their migratory lifestyle significantly impacts the cultural, social, and economic interactions within and between communities, particularly in the context of movements like the Seljuk migration and the resulting calls for support from the East.
Oghuz Turks: The Oghuz Turks were a group of Turkic tribes that played a crucial role in the migration and establishment of various states in the Middle East and Central Asia during the medieval period. Their movement into Anatolia and Persia laid the groundwork for the formation of the Seljuk Empire, which became a significant power in the region, influencing culture, politics, and religion.
Pope Urban II: Pope Urban II was the head of the Roman Catholic Church from 1088 to 1099, best known for initiating the First Crusade in response to a call for help from the Byzantine Empire. His efforts to mobilize Christian forces to reclaim Jerusalem marked a significant turning point in Christian-Islamic relations and set the stage for centuries of conflict.
Seljuk Turks: The Seljuk Turks were a group of nomadic warriors from Central Asia who, during the 11th century, established a powerful empire in the Middle East. They played a crucial role in the history of Islam and the Christian West, particularly through their conquests and governance, which set the stage for the Crusades and marked significant changes in power dynamics in the region.
Sultanate of Rum: The Sultanate of Rum was a medieval Turkish state that emerged in the 11th century in Anatolia, founded by the Seljuk Turks after their victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. This sultanate played a critical role in the Turkic settlement of Anatolia and established a unique blend of Persian and Islamic culture, influencing the region's politics, economy, and society.
Sultanates: Sultanates are political entities governed by a sultan, who serves as both the supreme ruler and a religious leader. This system often emerged in Islamic regions, allowing for significant regional autonomy while maintaining allegiance to a central authority. The concept of sultanates is closely tied to the Seljuk Migration, where various groups established their own sultanates as they moved into new territories, impacting local governance and cultural development.
Sunni-Shi'a divide: The Sunni-Shi'a divide refers to the major schism within Islam that arose after the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632 CE, primarily over the question of rightful leadership. Sunnis, who represent the majority of Muslims, believe that the community should select its leaders, while Shi'a Muslims maintain that leadership should remain within the Prophet's family, specifically favoring Ali, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. This divide not only shaped religious practices but also influenced political dynamics and social structures throughout Islamic history.
Turkification: Turkification refers to the process of assimilating non-Turkic populations into Turkish culture, language, and identity, especially during the Ottoman Empire and later in modern Turkey. This phenomenon aimed to create a unified national identity by promoting Turkish customs, language, and social norms while often marginalizing or suppressing other ethnic identities.
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