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World History – Before 1500
Table of Contents
Unit 10 Overview: Empires of Faith
10.1 The Eastward Shift
10.2 The Byzantine Empire and Persia
10.3 The Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar
10.4 The Margins of Empire

The kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar were major players in Red Sea trade during Late Antiquity. These powerful states controlled key routes between the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean, exchanging goods like ivory, gold, and spices with far-flung lands.

Religion deeply shaped the cultures and politics of Aksum and Himyar. Aksum adopted Christianity in the 4th century CE, while Judaism gained influence in Himyar. These religious identities affected their relations with each other and neighboring powers.

The Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar

Trade and cultural exchange

  • Aksum and Himyar major trading powers in Red Sea region
    • Aksum controlled western coast of Red Sea, Himyar controlled southern Arabian Peninsula
    • Both kingdoms engaged in maritime trade with Roman Empire, Persia, India, East Africa
  • Aksum and Himyar intermediaries in trade between Mediterranean world and Indian Ocean
    • Aksumite merchants traded ivory, gold, other African goods for silk, spices, luxury items from East
    • Himyarite merchants traded frankincense, myrrh, Arabian aromatics for goods from Mediterranean and Africa
  • Religious exchanges occurred alongside commercial interactions
    • Christianity spread to Aksum from Roman Empire in 4th century CE
    • Judaism gained foothold in Himyar, possibly through contact with Jewish communities in Aksum or Arabian Peninsula

Religious influence on culture and politics

  • Aksum adopted Christianity as official religion in 4th century CE under King Ezana
    • Aksumite Church developed distinct traditions and practices, influenced by local African customs (veneration of saints, use of Ge'ez language in liturgy)
    • Christianity became unifying force in Aksum, strengthening power of monarchy and state
  • Judaism significant religion in Himyar, particularly among ruling elite
    • Himyarite king Dhu Nuwas converted to Judaism in early 6th century CE
    • Dhu Nuwas persecuted Christians in Himyar, leading to conflict with Christian Aksum
  • Religious identities of Aksum and Himyar shaped political relations with each other and neighboring powers
    • Aksum intervened militarily in Himyar to protect Christian communities, conquering kingdom in 525 CE
    • Byzantine Empire supported Aksum as Christian ally, Sassanid Persian Empire backed Jewish and pagan factions in Himyar

Spread and diversification of religions in Late Antiquity

  • Christianity expanded throughout Roman Empire and beyond, reaching Aksum, Nubia, other parts of Africa
    • Distinct Christian traditions emerged (Coptic Church in Egypt, Ethiopian Orthodox Church in Aksum)
    • Christian missionaries, monks, merchants played key role in spreading faith along trade routes and through diplomatic contacts
  • Judaism spread to various parts of Afro-Eurasian world (Himyar, Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia)
    • Jewish communities often thrived in urban centers and along trade routes, engaging in commerce and cultural exchange
    • Jewish diaspora maintained connections across vast distances, facilitating spread of ideas and practices
  • Zoroastrianism, ancient Persian religion, continued to be influential in Sassanid Persian Empire and Central Asia
    • Zoroastrian beliefs and practices (dualism, fire worship) spread through trade and conquest
    • Interactions between Zoroastrianism, Christianity, Judaism led to religious syncretism and emergence of new traditions (Manichaeism)

Key Terms to Review (21)

Judaism: Judaism is one of the oldest monotheistic religions, centered on the belief in a single, all-powerful God and rooted in the teachings of the Hebrew Bible. This faith emphasizes the importance of covenant, law, and ethical conduct, with a rich tradition of texts, rituals, and cultural practices that have shaped the identity of the Jewish people throughout history. Its influence can be seen in various regions and cultures, affecting philosophical, ethical, and religious thought across different societies.
Late Antiquity: Late Antiquity refers to a period from the 3rd to the 8th century, characterized by significant transformations in the Roman Empire and its surrounding regions. This era saw the gradual transition from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages, marked by changes in political structures, culture, religion, and social dynamics, particularly in the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond.
Aksum: Aksum was an ancient kingdom located in what is now Ethiopia and Eritrea, flourishing from approximately the 1st to the 7th centuries CE. It became a major trading empire known for its wealth, monumental architecture, and early adoption of Christianity, making it a key player in regional commerce and culture.
Himyar: Himyar was an ancient kingdom located in present-day Yemen, flourishing from the 1st century BCE to the 5th century CE. This kingdom was known for its rich culture, trade networks, and conflicts with neighboring powers, including the Aksumite Empire. Himyar's significance lies in its strategic location along trade routes, its role in the spread of Christianity in the Arabian Peninsula, and its eventual conquest by Aksum.
Mahrem: Mahrem refers to a term in Islamic culture that signifies individuals with whom one has a permanent family bond, making marriage and sexual relations forbidden. This concept is particularly relevant in discussions about social structure and family dynamics within various Islamic societies, including the kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar, where familial ties played a crucial role in governance and societal organization.
King Ezana: King Ezana was the ruler of the Kingdom of Aksum during the early 4th century and is renowned for being one of the first monarchs to officially adopt Christianity as the state religion. His reign marked a significant transformation in Aksum, as he expanded its territory and influence while promoting trade and cultural exchanges with neighboring regions, especially the Himyarite Kingdom.
Almaqah: Almaqah was an important god worshiped in the ancient Arabian Kingdom of Himyar, symbolizing the moon and fertility. This deity played a central role in the religious practices of Himyar and Aksum, influencing trade and cultural exchanges between these kingdoms. Almaqah's worship is often associated with the agricultural cycles of the region, as it was believed that his blessings were essential for a fruitful harvest.
Ge'ez: Ge'ez is an ancient Semitic language that originated in the Kingdom of Aksum and is still used today in the liturgical context of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. It is considered the precursor to modern Ethiopian languages and serves as an important symbol of the region's rich cultural and religious history. The language played a crucial role in the development of Christianity in Ethiopia and reflects the historical connections between Aksum and other civilizations.
Frankincense: Frankincense is a fragrant resin obtained from the Boswellia tree, commonly used in incense and perfumes. This valuable commodity played a crucial role in trade routes and was highly sought after in ancient civilizations, especially in the Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar, where it was traded extensively and valued for its religious and medicinal properties.
Indian Ocean trade: Indian Ocean trade refers to the extensive network of commerce that developed across the Indian Ocean from ancient times through the medieval period, facilitating the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas between East Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, India, Southeast Asia, and beyond. This trade network was crucial for the economic prosperity of various kingdoms and societies that engaged in it, leading to cultural exchanges and the rise of powerful trading states along the coastlines.
Monumental architecture: Monumental architecture refers to large, impressive structures built to serve as significant symbols or statements of power, culture, or religious belief. This type of architecture often includes temples, palaces, and tombs, showcasing the artistic and engineering capabilities of a civilization while embodying its values and achievements. In the context of ancient civilizations like Aksum and Himyar, monumental architecture was not only a reflection of their political and economic power but also served as a means to express cultural identity and religious devotion.
Red Sea: The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, located between Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. It was crucial for trade and maritime routes in ancient times, particularly for the Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar, linking these regions with the broader Mediterranean world and beyond.
Beher: Beher refers to a term used in ancient South Arabian inscriptions and is often connected to the Himyarite Kingdom's practices. This term symbolizes various concepts, including the cultural and economic exchange facilitated by the trade networks established by the Aksumite and Himyarite kingdoms. It embodies the idea of interaction between diverse cultures in a region that was strategically important for trade routes connecting Africa, Arabia, and beyond.
Aksumite Church: The Aksumite Church refers to the early Christian church established in the Kingdom of Aksum, which emerged in the 4th century CE. This church played a crucial role in promoting Christianity within the region and is notable for its unique blend of indigenous traditions and Christian beliefs, helping to shape the cultural identity of Aksumite society.
Obelisks: Obelisks are tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monuments with a pyramidion on top, commonly associated with ancient Egyptian architecture. These structures were often erected in pairs at the entrances of temples and served both religious and commemorative purposes. In the context of the Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar, obelisks symbolize the architectural sophistication and cultural significance of these civilizations as they adopted and adapted styles from earlier cultures.
Monotheistic: Monotheistic refers to the belief in a single, all-powerful deity. This concept contrasts with polytheism, where multiple gods are worshipped. In the context of ancient kingdoms like Aksum and Himyar, monotheism played a significant role in shaping political, cultural, and social structures as these societies adopted and promoted the worship of one god, influencing trade, governance, and interactions with neighboring cultures.
Ethiopic Bible: The Ethiopic Bible is an ancient Christian scripture used by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, written primarily in Ge'ez, which is an ancient Ethiopian language. This version of the Bible includes several books that are not found in the standard biblical canon, highlighting Ethiopia's unique Christian traditions and cultural identity, particularly during the era of the Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar.
Meder: Meder refers to an ancient people and culture that inhabited the region of modern-day Ethiopia and parts of Arabia, especially within the context of the Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar. The Meders were significant in trade and cultural exchanges, linking the African interior to the Arabian Peninsula and contributing to the development of these early kingdoms through commerce and interaction.
Emperor Constantine: Emperor Constantine, also known as Constantine the Great, was a Roman emperor from 306 to 337 CE who is best known for being the first Roman ruler to convert to Christianity. His reign marked a significant turning point for the Roman Empire, influencing both its political structure and religious landscape, which had lasting effects on regions such as Aksum and Himyar that were part of the broader early Christian world.
Conversion: Conversion refers to the process of changing one's religious beliefs or adopting a new faith. In the context of the Kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar, this term highlights the significant influence of Christianity as it spread through trade and cultural exchange in these regions. The conversion of local populations played a vital role in shaping the religious landscape, political alliances, and cultural identity of these kingdoms during this period.
Coinage: Coinage refers to the process of creating standardized metal currency, which is stamped or minted to signify its value and authenticity. In the context of ancient kingdoms like Aksum and Himyar, coinage played a crucial role in facilitating trade, asserting political power, and reflecting economic stability. The use of coins allowed these kingdoms to engage in both local and long-distance trade, fostering economic growth and cultural exchanges.