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8.4 Bipolar, Depressive, Anxiety, and Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

6 min readdecember 31, 2022

Emily Pedrazzi

Emily Pedrazzi

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Emily Pedrazzi

Emily Pedrazzi

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Mood Disorders

Most people think of when clinical psychology is mentioned. are characterized by unusual and disruptive changes in mood, manifesting in , , or both. These disruptions can be caused by chemical imbalances, genetic factors, environmental factors, and/or the time of year.

can manifest as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), or . Each type of has different patterns. SAD has a seasonal pattern, lasts multiple years and is mild, and MDD can last months or years and is more severe.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-BbCVb8BbUHCL.png?alt=media&token=8b51db07-0057-45c3-beb2-f7c659439ab1

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

Major Depressive Disorder

MDD is the common perception of the general population when they think of . MDD happens when a person experiences a depressed mood and loss of interest for a long, sustained period of time.

often occurs after some sort of loss, whether it be a present loss or a past loss. Those with lose touch with reality because of these prolonged depressive thoughts. This disorder slows people down and makes them feel unmotivated to do just about anything—even getting out of bed becomes a difficult and time-consuming task.

Eventually, those with begin to redirect their energy into exercise and escaping .

Dysthymic Disorder

Those with persistent , or , experience mild for at least two years and often display some of these symptoms:

  1. Loss of appetite

  2. Sleeping problems

  3. Low energy and self-esteem

  4. Loss of focus

  5. Hopelessness

Bipolar Disorder

Another common mood disorder is (BP). BP is characterized by fluctuating mood swings between and or . is marked by a hyperactive state that can be euphoric.

During a manic episode, an individual may be more impulsive, irritable, hyperactive, energetic, and prone to reckless behavior. 

Those that suffer from experience sometimes, or others. can be cured.

Suicide

is more likely to happen if an individual has or .

(National Prevention Lifeline can be reached at 1-800-273-TALK (8255))

Self-Injury

There is also something called nonsuicidal self-injury. Those who engage in NSSI often do so as a coping mechanism. It can also be related to past traumas and includes any method of self-harm.

Etiology

Biological

Individuals with a family that had are more likely to have them as well. and BP are very genetic. The depressed brain shows a smaller left frontal lobe, which is usually associated with positive emotions. 🧬

are greatly affected by . There is very little norepinephrine and serotonin in the brains of those that are depressed.

Social-Cognitive

believe that biology cannot be the only reason for ; there has to be some sort of low self-esteem and a negative way of viewing life.

Your impacts the way you view life and how vulnerable you may be to . It is basically how you handle stress:

  • "It's going to last forever" is what someone with a stable may say.

  • "It's going to affect everything I do" is what someone with a global may say.

  • "It's all my fault" is what someone with an internal may say.

Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety comes in many different forms due to the wide spectrum of . can be categorized into trauma, compulsion, and fear-based anxiety. Some individuals are more prone to anxiety since they remember threats and notice patterns more.

Panic Disorder

is a mixture of physiological and fear-based anxiety. It often includes unpredictable panic attacks with physical symptoms and terror.

A is characterized by physiological symptoms such as sweating, fast heart rate, or dizziness. The fear may be onset from the anxiety of a occurring. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-MOckVfxk9s6S.JPG?alt=media&token=9e1b6d49-eac4-4f4a-b844-ad570095648c

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

OCD

Many people underestimate the stress one with OCD experiences on a daily basis. There is a misconception that OCD is all about being neat and organized. However, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is really an anxiety disorder rooted in obsessions and compulsions.

Obsessions are repetitive thoughts 💭 that cause anxiety and disruptions in day-to-day life. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors 👋 that are the result of obsessions. The difference between the two is one is actions, and the other is thoughts.

People often forget that having OCD becomes very haunting, time-consuming, and ritualistic. Some people with severe OCD can struggle with performing important life activities and routines.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-1M4mcMjENEGz.JPG?alt=media&token=e29bd4a3-70e2-4783-854c-f01e98f29455

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

Here are some examples of obsessions and compulsions:

Obsessions (repeating thoughts)Compulsions (repeating behaviors)
-concern with dirt, germs, and toxins 🦠 -something bad happening 24/7 -symmetry, order, exactness 🕸️-excessive hand-washing and bathing 🛀 -repeating rituals -checking doors, locks, and homework multiple times 🔒

GAD

Another key anxiety disorder is Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). GAD is characterized by consistent anxiety of worst-case scenario situations regarding any ongoing event.

GAD is basically an exaggerated arousal of the autonomic nervous system. Because of their consistent anxiety, those with GAD have a hard time sleeping and are often accompanied by a depressed mood. Concentration becomes difficult with all of the thoughts and worries circling their minds constantly.

Symptoms, such as dizziness and sweaty palms, are common for only the first six months of the disorder.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-KCRdXsZTbWki.JPG?alt=media&token=d3c8fd91-f466-4eab-82f4-3d67f8944032

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

Phobias

Lastly, several are rooted in fear. A phobia is a disruptive fear of any specific source, varying widely. tend to cause avoidant behavior toward the source of fear. Many accept their , but others are so avoidant of them that they cannot live their everyday lives properly.

There can be of animals, heights, bugs, storms, enclosed spaces, or the outdoors.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-1eKtc687J7kh.JPG?alt=media&token=0700d548-7822-4777-a109-b01f2f446079

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

Another example of a phobia is (social phobia), which is anxiety caused by most social interactions. People with this disorder fear rejection, embarrassment, or judgment.

If a fear is intense enough, it may result in . is a type of anxiety disorder that involves a fear of being in situations where it might be difficult or embarrassing to escape or get help in the event of a . People with often avoid public places, such as shopping malls, bridges, or airplanes, because they are afraid of having a in these situations. They may also avoid leaving their home or venturing far from home because they are afraid of being in a place where they cannot easily access help. can be a very debilitating condition and significantly interfere with a person's daily life.

Etiology

As always, there are multiple perspectives to view these disorders from.

Behavioral

Behaviorists believe that the unpredictable occurrence of bad events leads to anxiety. They believe in two processes that are used during classical and operant conditioning that pertain specifically to :

  1. Stimulus Generalization—If a bee stings someone 🐝, that person may develop a fear of all bugs. Another example is if a dog bites someone, the person may develop a fear of all dogs. 🐕

  2. Reinforcement—Once develop, makes it hard to get rid of them. If we continue to run away from our fears, we are reinforcing our fears. It becomes a cycle that is difficult to break.

Social-Cognitive

This has to do with Albert Bandura (once more) and observational learning. If we observe other people's fear, we may become afraid of the same stimuli.

Cognition

How we perceive certain stimuli could make us afraid of them.

Evolutionary and Biological

Evolutionary psychologists believe we are afraid of things that our ancestors protected us from. They also think that we protect ourselves from the unknown.

Biological psychologists believe the fear may include a combination of , genetics, and biological bases of behavior.

🎥Watch: AP PsychologyClinical: Anxiety and Mood Disorders

Key Terms to Review (26)

Agoraphobia

: Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by intense fear and avoidance of places or situations where escape might be difficult or help unavailable if panic-like symptoms were to occur.

Anxiety Disorders

: These are types of mental health disorders characterized by feelings of anxiety and fear strong enough to interfere with one’s daily activities. Examples include panic attacks, obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Biological Factors

: Biological factors refer to all the biological influences on an individual, including genetic makeup, physical health and brain structure or chemistry.

Bipolar Disorder

: Bipolar disorder is a mental health condition marked by extreme mood swings from high (mania) to low (depression).

Depression

: Depression is a mood disorder causing persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest in activities once enjoyed leading to impairment in daily life functions.

Dysthymic Disorder

: Also known as Persistent Depressive Disorder; it is a continuous long-term (chronic) form of depression where one may lose interest in normal daily activities, feel hopeless or have low self-esteem.

Etiology

: Etiology refers to the study of causes or origins. In psychology, it's used to understand the root cause of a particular behavior, mental disorder, or disease.

Explanatory Style

: Explanatory style is a psychological attribute that indicates how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event, either positive or negative.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

: GAD is a psychological disorder characterized by excessive worry about everyday things for at least six months. People with GAD find it difficult to control their anxiety levels which can interfere with daily activities.

Hypomania

: Hypomania is a mood state characterized by persistent disinhibition and pervasive elevated (euphoric) or irritable mood but generally less severe than full mania.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

: A mental health disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest in activities, and difficulty carrying out daily tasks for at least two weeks.

Mania

: Mania is a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level, or "a state of heightened overall activation with enhanced affective expression together with lability of affect."

Mood Disorders

: These are mental health disorders characterized by significant disturbances in mood or emotional state such as depression or bipolar disorder.

Neuroanatomy

: Neuroanatomy is a branch of neuroscience that studies the structure or organization of the nervous system and brain.

Neurotransmitters

: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another 'target' neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell.

Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI)

: NSSI refers to the deliberate, self-inflicted damage of body tissue without suicidal intent and for purposes not socially sanctioned.

Observational Learning

: Observational learning happens when an individual learns by watching others and then imitates their behaviors.

Panic Attack

: A panic attack is an abrupt surge of intense fear or discomfort that reaches its peak within minutes and includes symptoms like heart palpitations, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath etc.

Panic Disorder

: A psychiatric disorder in which debilitating anxiety and fear arise frequently and without reasonable cause, presenting themselves in the form of panic attacks.

Phobias

: Phobias are irrational fears of specific objects or situations that lead to avoidance behavior.

Reinforcement

: Reinforcement is a consequence that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior by providing a desirable outcome or removing an undesirable one.

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

: SAD is a type of depression that comes and goes with the seasons, typically starting in the late fall and early winter and going away during the spring and summer.

Social Anxiety Disorder

: Social Anxiety Disorder is a chronic mental health condition where social interactions cause irrational anxiety, fear, self-consciousness, and embarrassment.

Social-Cognitive Psychologists

: Social-cognitive psychologists study how people's thoughts, behaviors, and social interactions are shaped by their cognitive processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.

Stimulus Generalization

: Stimulus generalization involves transferring a learned response from one stimulus to another, similar stimulus. It's a type of learning where a new situation is perceived as identical to a previously encountered situation.

Suicide

: Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death.

8.4 Bipolar, Depressive, Anxiety, and Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

6 min readdecember 31, 2022

Emily Pedrazzi

Emily Pedrazzi

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Emily Pedrazzi

Emily Pedrazzi

Jillian Holbrook

Jillian Holbrook

Mood Disorders

Most people think of when clinical psychology is mentioned. are characterized by unusual and disruptive changes in mood, manifesting in , , or both. These disruptions can be caused by chemical imbalances, genetic factors, environmental factors, and/or the time of year.

can manifest as Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), or . Each type of has different patterns. SAD has a seasonal pattern, lasts multiple years and is mild, and MDD can last months or years and is more severe.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-BbCVb8BbUHCL.png?alt=media&token=8b51db07-0057-45c3-beb2-f7c659439ab1

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

Major Depressive Disorder

MDD is the common perception of the general population when they think of . MDD happens when a person experiences a depressed mood and loss of interest for a long, sustained period of time.

often occurs after some sort of loss, whether it be a present loss or a past loss. Those with lose touch with reality because of these prolonged depressive thoughts. This disorder slows people down and makes them feel unmotivated to do just about anything—even getting out of bed becomes a difficult and time-consuming task.

Eventually, those with begin to redirect their energy into exercise and escaping .

Dysthymic Disorder

Those with persistent , or , experience mild for at least two years and often display some of these symptoms:

  1. Loss of appetite

  2. Sleeping problems

  3. Low energy and self-esteem

  4. Loss of focus

  5. Hopelessness

Bipolar Disorder

Another common mood disorder is (BP). BP is characterized by fluctuating mood swings between and or . is marked by a hyperactive state that can be euphoric.

During a manic episode, an individual may be more impulsive, irritable, hyperactive, energetic, and prone to reckless behavior. 

Those that suffer from experience sometimes, or others. can be cured.

Suicide

is more likely to happen if an individual has or .

(National Prevention Lifeline can be reached at 1-800-273-TALK (8255))

Self-Injury

There is also something called nonsuicidal self-injury. Those who engage in NSSI often do so as a coping mechanism. It can also be related to past traumas and includes any method of self-harm.

Etiology

Biological

Individuals with a family that had are more likely to have them as well. and BP are very genetic. The depressed brain shows a smaller left frontal lobe, which is usually associated with positive emotions. 🧬

are greatly affected by . There is very little norepinephrine and serotonin in the brains of those that are depressed.

Social-Cognitive

believe that biology cannot be the only reason for ; there has to be some sort of low self-esteem and a negative way of viewing life.

Your impacts the way you view life and how vulnerable you may be to . It is basically how you handle stress:

  • "It's going to last forever" is what someone with a stable may say.

  • "It's going to affect everything I do" is what someone with a global may say.

  • "It's all my fault" is what someone with an internal may say.

Anxiety Disorders

Anxiety comes in many different forms due to the wide spectrum of . can be categorized into trauma, compulsion, and fear-based anxiety. Some individuals are more prone to anxiety since they remember threats and notice patterns more.

Panic Disorder

is a mixture of physiological and fear-based anxiety. It often includes unpredictable panic attacks with physical symptoms and terror.

A is characterized by physiological symptoms such as sweating, fast heart rate, or dizziness. The fear may be onset from the anxiety of a occurring. 

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-MOckVfxk9s6S.JPG?alt=media&token=9e1b6d49-eac4-4f4a-b844-ad570095648c

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

OCD

Many people underestimate the stress one with OCD experiences on a daily basis. There is a misconception that OCD is all about being neat and organized. However, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is really an anxiety disorder rooted in obsessions and compulsions.

Obsessions are repetitive thoughts 💭 that cause anxiety and disruptions in day-to-day life. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors 👋 that are the result of obsessions. The difference between the two is one is actions, and the other is thoughts.

People often forget that having OCD becomes very haunting, time-consuming, and ritualistic. Some people with severe OCD can struggle with performing important life activities and routines.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-1M4mcMjENEGz.JPG?alt=media&token=e29bd4a3-70e2-4783-854c-f01e98f29455

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

Here are some examples of obsessions and compulsions:

Obsessions (repeating thoughts)Compulsions (repeating behaviors)
-concern with dirt, germs, and toxins 🦠 -something bad happening 24/7 -symmetry, order, exactness 🕸️-excessive hand-washing and bathing 🛀 -repeating rituals -checking doors, locks, and homework multiple times 🔒

GAD

Another key anxiety disorder is Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD). GAD is characterized by consistent anxiety of worst-case scenario situations regarding any ongoing event.

GAD is basically an exaggerated arousal of the autonomic nervous system. Because of their consistent anxiety, those with GAD have a hard time sleeping and are often accompanied by a depressed mood. Concentration becomes difficult with all of the thoughts and worries circling their minds constantly.

Symptoms, such as dizziness and sweaty palms, are common for only the first six months of the disorder.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-KCRdXsZTbWki.JPG?alt=media&token=d3c8fd91-f466-4eab-82f4-3d67f8944032

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

Phobias

Lastly, several are rooted in fear. A phobia is a disruptive fear of any specific source, varying widely. tend to cause avoidant behavior toward the source of fear. Many accept their , but others are so avoidant of them that they cannot live their everyday lives properly.

There can be of animals, heights, bugs, storms, enclosed spaces, or the outdoors.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-1eKtc687J7kh.JPG?alt=media&token=0700d548-7822-4777-a109-b01f2f446079

Image Courtesy of Verywell Mind.

Another example of a phobia is (social phobia), which is anxiety caused by most social interactions. People with this disorder fear rejection, embarrassment, or judgment.

If a fear is intense enough, it may result in . is a type of anxiety disorder that involves a fear of being in situations where it might be difficult or embarrassing to escape or get help in the event of a . People with often avoid public places, such as shopping malls, bridges, or airplanes, because they are afraid of having a in these situations. They may also avoid leaving their home or venturing far from home because they are afraid of being in a place where they cannot easily access help. can be a very debilitating condition and significantly interfere with a person's daily life.

Etiology

As always, there are multiple perspectives to view these disorders from.

Behavioral

Behaviorists believe that the unpredictable occurrence of bad events leads to anxiety. They believe in two processes that are used during classical and operant conditioning that pertain specifically to :

  1. Stimulus Generalization—If a bee stings someone 🐝, that person may develop a fear of all bugs. Another example is if a dog bites someone, the person may develop a fear of all dogs. 🐕

  2. Reinforcement—Once develop, makes it hard to get rid of them. If we continue to run away from our fears, we are reinforcing our fears. It becomes a cycle that is difficult to break.

Social-Cognitive

This has to do with Albert Bandura (once more) and observational learning. If we observe other people's fear, we may become afraid of the same stimuli.

Cognition

How we perceive certain stimuli could make us afraid of them.

Evolutionary and Biological

Evolutionary psychologists believe we are afraid of things that our ancestors protected us from. They also think that we protect ourselves from the unknown.

Biological psychologists believe the fear may include a combination of , genetics, and biological bases of behavior.

🎥Watch: AP PsychologyClinical: Anxiety and Mood Disorders

Key Terms to Review (26)

Agoraphobia

: Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder characterized by intense fear and avoidance of places or situations where escape might be difficult or help unavailable if panic-like symptoms were to occur.

Anxiety Disorders

: These are types of mental health disorders characterized by feelings of anxiety and fear strong enough to interfere with one’s daily activities. Examples include panic attacks, obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Biological Factors

: Biological factors refer to all the biological influences on an individual, including genetic makeup, physical health and brain structure or chemistry.

Bipolar Disorder

: Bipolar disorder is a mental health condition marked by extreme mood swings from high (mania) to low (depression).

Depression

: Depression is a mood disorder causing persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest in activities once enjoyed leading to impairment in daily life functions.

Dysthymic Disorder

: Also known as Persistent Depressive Disorder; it is a continuous long-term (chronic) form of depression where one may lose interest in normal daily activities, feel hopeless or have low self-esteem.

Etiology

: Etiology refers to the study of causes or origins. In psychology, it's used to understand the root cause of a particular behavior, mental disorder, or disease.

Explanatory Style

: Explanatory style is a psychological attribute that indicates how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event, either positive or negative.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

: GAD is a psychological disorder characterized by excessive worry about everyday things for at least six months. People with GAD find it difficult to control their anxiety levels which can interfere with daily activities.

Hypomania

: Hypomania is a mood state characterized by persistent disinhibition and pervasive elevated (euphoric) or irritable mood but generally less severe than full mania.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

: A mental health disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, loss of interest in activities, and difficulty carrying out daily tasks for at least two weeks.

Mania

: Mania is a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level, or "a state of heightened overall activation with enhanced affective expression together with lability of affect."

Mood Disorders

: These are mental health disorders characterized by significant disturbances in mood or emotional state such as depression or bipolar disorder.

Neuroanatomy

: Neuroanatomy is a branch of neuroscience that studies the structure or organization of the nervous system and brain.

Neurotransmitters

: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across a synapse from one neuron (nerve cell) to another 'target' neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell.

Nonsuicidal Self-Injury (NSSI)

: NSSI refers to the deliberate, self-inflicted damage of body tissue without suicidal intent and for purposes not socially sanctioned.

Observational Learning

: Observational learning happens when an individual learns by watching others and then imitates their behaviors.

Panic Attack

: A panic attack is an abrupt surge of intense fear or discomfort that reaches its peak within minutes and includes symptoms like heart palpitations, sweating, trembling, shortness of breath etc.

Panic Disorder

: A psychiatric disorder in which debilitating anxiety and fear arise frequently and without reasonable cause, presenting themselves in the form of panic attacks.

Phobias

: Phobias are irrational fears of specific objects or situations that lead to avoidance behavior.

Reinforcement

: Reinforcement is a consequence that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a behavior by providing a desirable outcome or removing an undesirable one.

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

: SAD is a type of depression that comes and goes with the seasons, typically starting in the late fall and early winter and going away during the spring and summer.

Social Anxiety Disorder

: Social Anxiety Disorder is a chronic mental health condition where social interactions cause irrational anxiety, fear, self-consciousness, and embarrassment.

Social-Cognitive Psychologists

: Social-cognitive psychologists study how people's thoughts, behaviors, and social interactions are shaped by their cognitive processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.

Stimulus Generalization

: Stimulus generalization involves transferring a learned response from one stimulus to another, similar stimulus. It's a type of learning where a new situation is perceived as identical to a previously encountered situation.

Suicide

: Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death.


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.


© 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.