3.8 Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning shapes behavior through consequences. It uses reinforcement to increase desired actions and punishment to decrease unwanted ones. This powerful learning method applies to humans and animals alike, influencing everything from pet training to workplace productivity.

Different types of reinforcement and punishment exist, along with various schedules for delivering them. Understanding these principles helps explain why people and animals behave as they do and how to effectively modify behavior in real-world situations.

The Law of Effect

The Law of Effect means that people and animals tend to repeat actions that lead to good outcomes and avoid actions that lead to bad outcomes. If a behavior is rewarded, it is more likely to happen again. If a behavior leads to something unpleasant, it is less likely to be repeated.

Key points:

• Behaviors + reinforcing consequences = increase in frequency
• Behaviors + punishing consequences = decrease in frequency
• The timing of consequences matters, immediate feedback is most effective
• The strength of the association depends on consistency and timing

Types of reinforcement and punishment

Reinforcement and punishment each affect behavior differently, depending on whether something is ADDED (positive) or REMOVED (negative). Remember that positive and negative here do not mean good or bad. Think of them more like numbers +1 or -1.

Positive = Adding something +1 Negative = Taking something away -1 Reinforcement = Encouraging behavior
Punishment = Discouraging behavior

Reinforcement (Increases Behavior)*

• Positive (+): Adding something good to encourage a behavior.
  • Example: A student gets candy for answering a question correctly, making them more likely to participate again.
• Negative (-): Taking away something bad to encourage a behavior.
  • Example: A driver wears a seatbelt to stop the annoying beeping sound, making them more likely to buckle up in the future.

Punishment (Decreases Behavior)

• Positive (+): Adding something unpleasant to discourage a behavior.
  • Example: A child is given extra chores for talking back, making them less likely to do it again.
• Negative (-): Taking away something enjoyable to discourage a behavior.
  • Example: A teenager loses their phone for missing curfew, making them more likely to come home on time next time.

Effectiveness depends on:

• When it's delivered
• How consistently it's applied
• How much the individual cares about the specific reinforcer/punisher

Shaping behavior through reinforcement

Shaping is a way to teach a behavior by reinforcing small steps toward the final goal, rather than waiting for the full behavior to happen all at once. It’s useful for learning complex or unnatural behaviors that don't happen automatically. Shaping is used in animal training, teaching children new skills, and even in therapy to help people develop habits step by step.

Instead of expecting someone (or an animal) to do the full behavior right away, you reward progress in small steps. Each step gets them closer to the goal.

Example: Teaching a dog to roll over

1. Pick the target behavior → Rolling over completely
2. Break it into smaller steps → First, reward the dog for lying down, then for turning its head, then for rolling halfway, and finally for rolling over
3. Reinforce each step → Give treats or praise for each small success
4. Gradually raise the bar → Only reward when the dog gets closer to fully rolling over

Limits to Shaping

• The behavior must be something the person or animal can physically do. You can’t shape a behavior that is impossible.
• Instinctive drift happens when an animal goes back to its natural behaviors, even after being trained. For example, a raccoon trained to put a coin in a piggy bank might start rubbing the coin instead—because that’s what raccoons instinctively do with food. 🦝

Superstitious Behavior vs. Learned Helplessness

Both of these concepts show how learning can go wrong, but they happen for different reasons.

Superstitious behavior happens when someone mistakenly connects an action with an outcome, even though they aren't actually related. This happens because of accidental reinforcement—a reward or good outcome happens randomly after a behavior, so the person or animal believes the behavior caused it.

• Example: A baseball player wears the same lucky socks for every game because they once hit a home run while wearing them, even though the socks had nothing to do with it.
• This behavior can continue even when there is no actual cause-and-effect relationship.

Learned helplessness happens when someone experiences repeated negative outcomes that they can’t control. Over time, they stop trying to improve their situation—even when they later have the power to change things.

• Example: A student repeatedly fails math tests despite studying, so they stop trying altogether, believing that nothing they do will help. 😫
• Even when the situation changes (like getting a great tutor), they might still believe they will fail and not put in effort.

Key Differences

• Superstitious behavior comes from false beliefs in control, while learned helplessness comes from believing there is no control at all.
• Superstitions make people repeat unnecessary actions, while learned helplessness makes them stop trying completely.
• Superstitious behavior happens when good things happen by chance, while learned helplessness develops when bad things happen repeatedly with no escape.

Reinforcement Schedules

The way rewards are given affects how behavior is learned and maintained. Reinforcement schedules determine when and how often a behavior is reinforced, which impacts how quickly learning happens and how long the behavior lasts.

Continuous Reinforcement provides a reward every time a behavior occurs. It is the fastest way to teach a new behavior because the learner quickly associates the action with the reward.

• Example: A dog gets a treat every time it sits on command.
• Works well for initial learning but has a downside—if the reinforcement stops, the behavior disappears quickly (extinction).

With partial reinforcement, rewards are given only sometimes, which makes the behavior more resistant to extinction. There are four main types of partial reinforcement, divided into interval-based (time-related) and ratio-based (response-related) schedules.

Interval-Based Schedules (Reinforcement Based on Time)

• Fixed-Interval Schedule: The reward comes after a set period of time, regardless of how often the behavior occurs.
  • Example: A worker gets paid every two weeks.
  • Behavior increases as the reward time approaches but slows down right after.
• Variable-Interval Schedule: The reward comes after unpredictable time intervals.
  • Example: Checking for a text message—there’s no set time, so you keep checking throughout the day.
  • Produces steady, consistent behavior since the reinforcement is unpredictable.

Ratio-Based Schedules (Reinforcement Based on Responses)

• Fixed-Ratio Schedule: A reward is given after a set number of responses.
  • Example: A coffee shop gives a free drink after every 10 purchases.
  • Creates a high response rate, but behavior may pause briefly after the reward.
• Variable-Ratio Schedule: The number of responses needed for reinforcement changes randomly.
  • Example: Slot machines in casinos reward players at unpredictable times.
  • This schedule is the most resistant to extinction because the person keeps responding, hoping the next attempt will be rewarded.

Which Schedule Works Best?

• Continuous reinforcement is best for learning new behaviors quickly.
• Partial reinforcement is better for maintaining behavior over time.
• Variable schedules, especially variable-ratio, create the most persistent behaviors because the unpredictability keeps people engaged.