3.9 Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning

Social learning theory says that people can learn just by watching others. Instead of needing to experience something first hand, we pick up behaviors by observing what happens to other people. This means that we don't always have to go through trial and error ourselves—we can learn from what others do and the consequences they face.

Vicarious Conditioning

One way we learn through observation is called vicarious conditioning. This happens when we see someone else get rewarded or punished for their actions, and we adjust our own behavior based on what we see.

• If someone gets rewarded for a behavior, we are more likely to copy it.
  • Example: A student sees their friend praised for answering a question in class. They feel encouraged to participate more.
• If someone gets punished for a behavior, we are less likely to imitate it.
  • Example: A child watches their sibling get in trouble for drawing on the walls. They decide not to do the same.
• Even subtle social cues—like approval, encouragement, or disapproval—affect learning.
  • Example: A teenager notices that telling jokes makes their friends laugh and engage with them more, so they start making more jokes.

The effectiveness of this type of learning depends on who we're watching. The more similar the person (also called the 'model') is, the more likely we are to copy them. We're more likely to copy behaviors from:

• People with high status or influence that we see as successful or skilled
• People who are similar or even related to us. A child is more likely to copy a sibling than an unrelated adult.
• People with authority, like a teacher, coach, or expert that we believe is worth copying.
• Culturally aligned people who are doing things you know to be accepted in your community or culture.
• When a teacher, coach, or expert does something, we are more likely to believe it’s important and worth copying.

Cognitive factors in learning

Insight learning without associations

Insight learning happens when a solution suddenly becomes clear instead of being learned step by step. It shows that thinking and problem-solving play a big role in learning, not just practice or rewards.

🐒 Wolfgang Köhler’s experiments with chimpanzees demonstrated this. He gave chimps a problem, like a banana placed out of reach. Instead of trying random actions, they seemed to think for a while and then suddenly figured out a solution, like stacking boxes or using a stick.

The process usually follows these steps:

1. A problem appears
2. There is a period of thinking or confusion
3. The solution suddenly comes to mind
4. The solution is used successfully

Once someone figures out a solution this way, they can often use the same idea in other situations. For example, if a child suddenly understands how to open a tricky jar, they might use the same method for other jars in the future. Insight learning shows that problem-solving is not just about trial and error—it also involves thinking and sudden realizations.

Latent learning and cognitive maps

Latent learning happens when someone learns something but doesn't show it until they have a reason to use that knowledge. This challenges the idea that learning only happens with rewards or practice. People and animals can pick up information passively and use it later when needed.

🐀 Edward Tolman’s rat maze experiments helped prove this concept. Rats that explored a maze without rewards still learned its layout. When food was later placed at the end, they quickly found the shortest path, showing they had already learned but had no reason to show it before.

A key part of this learning is cognitive maps—mental images of a place and its layout. These maps help people and animals navigate by recognizing landmarks, paths, and shortcuts.

Cognitive maps help with:

• Finding the best route to a destination
• Recognizing familiar places and key landmarks
• Adjusting to changes, like taking a new route if a road is closed
• Making navigation easier without needing constant practice

For example, after walking around a new school for a few days, a student may not need a map anymore. Even if they never walked a specific route before, their brain has already built a mental picture, helping them find their way.