Neurodevelopmental disorders impact behavior, cognition, and social skills during development. ADHD and autism spectrum disorder are key examples. These disorders can stem from environmental factors, physiological issues, or genetic influences.
🚫 Exclusion Note: While there are many disorders listed in diagnostic manuals used by professionals in the field, the AP Psychology Exam focuses on the disorders listed in Topic 5.4 as representative of an introductory understanding of psychological disorders.
Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of disorders with onset occurring during the developmental period. They appear early in childhood and affect a person's ability to function in daily life. These disorders impact behavior, learning, communication, and social interactions. Symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders focus on whether the person is exhibiting behaviors appropriate for their age or maturity range.
Characteristics of neurodevelopmental disorders
Neurodevelopmental disorders typically emerge during childhood and can significantly impact daily functioning. These conditions affect how the brain develops and processes information, leading to challenges in various areas of life.
Key characteristics include:
- Delays in reaching developmental milestones
- Difficulties with social interaction and communication
- Problems with attention, memory, or learning
- Challenges with motor skills or coordination
The most common disorders include:
- ADHD (Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder)
- Difficulty maintaining attention
- Hyperactive behavior
- Impulsive actions
- Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
- Social communication challenges
- Restricted interests
- Repetitive behaviors
Causes of neurodevelopmental disorders
Multiple factors can contribute to the development of these disorders. Possible causes may be environmental, physiological, or genetic in nature.
Environmental factors include:
- Exposure to toxins during pregnancy, such as lead or alcohol
- Premature birth or low birth weight
- Complications during birth affecting brain development
Biological influences:
- Differences in brain structure and function, especially in areas related to attention and social behavior
- Imbalances in neurotransmitters that affect mood and impulse control
Genetic factors play a significant role through:
- Family history of neurodevelopmental disorders increasing the likelihood of diagnosis
- Specific genetic mutations or variations linked to conditions like ADHD and ASD
Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders
Schizophrenic spectrum disorders are characterized by issues in one or more of five areas: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, disorganized motor behavior, and negative symptoms. Schizophrenia can be experienced as an acute (short-term and severe) or chronic (long-lasting and persistent) condition.
Symptoms of Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders
Symptoms are typically classified as positive symptoms, which involve the presence of unusual behaviors or experiences, and negative symptoms, which involve the absence of typical behaviors or emotions.
Delusions (false beliefs)
- Delusions are positive symptoms
- Believing something untrue despite evidence to the contrary
- Common types include delusions of persecution (believing others are out to harm them) and delusions of grandeur (believing they have special powers or importance)
Hallucinations (false perceptions)
- Hallucinations are positive symptoms and may involve one or more of the senses
- Experiencing sensations that are not real, such as hearing voices or seeing things that are not there
- Auditory hallucinations are the most common
Disorganized thinking or speech
- Disorganized thinking or speech is a positive symptom
- Difficulty organizing thoughts, leading to fragmented or confused speech
- May result in word salad, where words are strung together in nonsensical ways
Disorganized motor behavior
- May manifest as catatonia, or disordered movement
- Catatonia may be experienced as excitement, which is a positive symptom manifestation, or stupor, which is a negative symptom manifestation
Negative symptoms (lack of typical behaviors)
- Negative symptoms present as the lack of a typical behavior
- Flat affect, or showing little to no emotional expression
- Catatonic stupor, where a person is unresponsive and lacks movement or speech
Causes of schizophrenia
The exact cause of schizophrenia is not fully understood, but research suggests a genetic or biological link.
Genetic factors:
- A family history of schizophrenia increases the likelihood of developing the disorder
- Specific gene variations may contribute to susceptibility
Biological factors:
- Imbalances in dopamine, a neurotransmitter involved in thinking and perception (known as the dopamine hypothesis)
- Prenatal virus exposure may increase risk
Depressive Disorders
Depressive disorders are characterized by the presence of sad, empty, or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that affect a person's ability to function. These disorders go beyond normal sadness and can significantly impair daily life.
Symptoms of depressive disorders
The two main depressive disorders covered in AP Psychology are major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder.
Major depressive disorder
- Persistent feelings of sadness, emptiness, or hopelessness
- Loss of interest or pleasure in activities that were once enjoyable
- Significant changes in appetite or weight (increase or decrease)
- Sleep disturbances, including insomnia or excessive sleeping
- Fatigue or loss of energy
- Difficulty concentrating, making decisions, or thinking clearly
- Feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt
- Recurrent thoughts of death or suicidal ideation
Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)
- A chronic form of depression
- Symptoms are generally less severe than major depressive disorder but are more long-lasting
- Individuals may experience low self-esteem, low energy, and difficulty making decisions
Causes of depressive disorders
Possible causes of depressive disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.
Biological and genetic factors:
- Imbalances in neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine
- Genetic predisposition, as depression tends to run in families
Social and cultural factors:
- Major life stressors such as loss, trauma, or significant change
- Social isolation or lack of supportive relationships
- Cultural expectations and socioeconomic pressures
Behavioral and cognitive factors:
- Learned helplessness, where repeated negative experiences lead to a belief that one cannot control outcomes
- Negative thinking patterns, including Aaron Beck's cognitive triad (negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future)
- Rumination, or the tendency to dwell on negative thoughts
Bipolar Disorders
Bipolar disorders are characterized by periods of mania and periods of depression. Bipolar cycling involves experiencing periods of depression and mania in alternating periods that can last various amounts of time. These mood shifts are more extreme than typical mood fluctuations.
Symptoms of bipolar disorders
The two main bipolar disorders covered in AP Psychology are Bipolar I disorder and Bipolar II disorder.
Bipolar I disorder
- Involves at least one manic episode, which may be preceded or followed by depressive episodes
- Manic episodes include elevated or irritable mood, increased energy, decreased need for sleep, racing thoughts, and risky behavior
Bipolar II disorder
- Involves at least one hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode
- Hypomania is a less severe form of mania that does not cause major impairment in functioning
- Depressive episodes in Bipolar II tend to be longer and more debilitating than the hypomanic episodes
Causes of bipolar disorders
Possible causes of bipolar disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.
Genetic factors:
- Strong genetic component, as bipolar disorder tends to run in families
- Multiple genes appear to contribute to susceptibility
Biological factors:
- Dysregulation of neurotransmitters, particularly norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine
Environmental factors:
- Stressful life events may trigger initial episodes or relapses
- Disrupted sleep patterns can contribute to mood cycling
Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive fear and/or anxiety with related disturbances to behavior. While everyone experiences some anxiety, anxiety disorders involve persistent and disproportionate responses that interfere with daily functioning.
Symptoms of anxiety disorders
Several types of anxiety disorders are covered in AP Psychology.
Specific phobia
- Involves fear or anxiety toward a specific object or situation
- Common examples include acrophobia (fear of heights) and arachnophobia (fear of spiders)
- The fear is out of proportion to the actual danger
Agoraphobia
- Intense fear of specific social situations, including using public transportation, being in open spaces, being in enclosed spaces (such as shops or theaters), standing in line or being in a crowd, or being outside of the home alone
- People may avoid these situations because escape might feel difficult or help might not be available if panic occurs
- Agoraphobia is different from social anxiety disorder because the fear centers on the situation itself, not mainly on being judged by others
Panic disorder
- Involves the experience of panic attacks, which are unanticipated and overwhelming biological, cognitive, and emotional experiences of fear and anxiety
- Physical symptoms may include racing heart, shortness of breath, and dizziness
- Can manifest as a culture-bound anxiety disorder such as ataque de nervios, experienced mainly by people of Caribbean or Iberian descent
Social anxiety disorder
- Involves the intense fear of being judged or watched by others in social situations
- Distinct from but may include agoraphobia
- Taijin kyofusho is a culture-bound anxiety disorder experienced mainly by Japanese people in which individuals fear others are judging their bodies as undesirable, offensive, or unpleasing
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
- Involves prolonged experiences of nonspecific anxiety or fear
- Excessive worry about a wide range of everyday concerns
- Physical symptoms may include restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, and sleep disturbances
Causes of anxiety disorders
Possible causes of anxiety disorders focus on learned associations between and among stimuli, maladaptive thinking or emotional responses, and biological or genetic sources.
Learned associations:
- Classical conditioning can create associations between neutral stimuli and fear responses
- Observational learning, where anxiety is acquired by watching others react fearfully
Maladaptive thinking or emotional responses:
- Overestimating danger and underestimating one's ability to cope
- Catastrophic thinking patterns that amplify worry
Biological and genetic factors:
- Genetic predisposition to anxiety, as anxiety disorders tend to run in families
- Imbalances in neurotransmitters such as GABA and serotonin
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
Symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorders
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are characterized by obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (intrusive, often repetitive, behaviors intended to address obsessions). 🔁
- Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) involves both obsessions and compulsions that are time-consuming and cause significant distress or impairment
- Hoarding disorder is persistent difficulty discarding possessions, leading to clutter that impairs living spaces and causes distress
- Obsessions and compulsions can center around various themes like contamination, symmetry, or harm
- Individuals with OCD often recognize their thoughts and behaviors as irrational but feel unable to control them
Causes of obsessive-compulsive disorders
Possible causes of obsessive-compulsive disorders involve learned associations between and among stimuli, maladaptive thinking or emotional responses, and biological or genetic sources.
Learned associations:
- Classical conditioning, where neutral stimuli become associated with anxiety or distress through repeated pairings with aversive experiences
- Negative reinforcement, where compulsive behaviors are strengthened by their ability to temporarily reduce anxiety
Maladaptive thinking or emotional responses:
- Cognitive distortions like overestimating the likelihood or severity of negative outcomes
- Inflated sense of responsibility for preventing harm or making mistakes
- Difficulty tolerating uncertainty or ambiguity, leading to excessive checking or reassurance-seeking
Biological and genetic factors:
- Imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine
- Family history of OCD or related disorders, suggesting a genetic component
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative disorders are characterized by dissociations from consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior. These disruptions can be temporary or long-lasting and often occur in response to trauma or extreme stress.
Symptoms of dissociative disorders
People with dissociative disorders may experience a disconnect between their thoughts, emotions, identity, or surroundings. Symptoms vary depending on the type of disorder.
- Dissociative amnesia is inability to recall important personal information, often related to a stressful or traumatic event
- Dissociative fugue involves amnesia accompanied by unexpected travel or wandering and confusion about one's identity
- Dissociative identity disorder (formerly multiple personality disorder) is characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states or identities
- Dissociative symptoms can be sudden and transient or more persistent and chronic
Causes of dissociative disorders
Dissociative disorders are primarily caused by the experience of trauma or stress.
Traumatic experiences:
- Exposure to severe, repeated, or prolonged trauma, particularly during childhood (physical, sexual, or emotional abuse)
- Witnessing or experiencing life-threatening events
- Dissociation as a coping mechanism to detach from overwhelming emotions or memories
Chronic stress:
- Persistent exposure to high levels of stress, leading to emotional exhaustion and detachment
- Lack of healthy coping strategies or support systems to manage ongoing stressors
Childhood abuse or neglect:
- Early experiences of abuse or neglect can disrupt normal identity development and emotional regulation
- Dissociation as a way to compartmentalize or "split off" painful memories or aspects of the self
Trauma Disorders
Trauma and stressor-related disorders are characterized by exposure to a traumatic or stressful event with subsequent psychological distress. These disorders can significantly impact daily functioning.
Symptoms of trauma disorders
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the primary trauma disorder in scope for AP Psychology. Symptoms of PTSD may include hypervigilance, severe anxiety, flashbacks to traumatic experiences, insomnia, emotional detachment, and hostility.
These symptoms often manifest in the following ways:
- intrusive memories – flashbacks and nightmares that bring back the traumatic experience
- avoidance behaviors – where individuals stay away from trauma-related places, people, or conversations
- negative changes in mood and thinking – persistent fear, guilt, or emotional detachment from others
- hyperarousal – heightened alertness, irritability, hostility, insomnia or difficulty sleeping, or being easily startled
Causes of trauma disorders
The development of trauma and stressor-related disorders involves the experience of trauma or stress.
- Exposure to traumatic events
- Direct experience of actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence
- Witnessing traumatic events happening to others, particularly loved ones
- Learning about traumatic events happening to close family members or friends
- Individual differences in coping and resilience
- Pre-existing mental health conditions (depression, anxiety) can increase vulnerability to PTSD
- Lack of healthy coping strategies or social support systems to process traumatic experiences
Eating Disorders
Feeding and eating disorders are characterized by altered consumption or absorption of food that impairs health or psychological functioning. These disorders often lead to serious medical complications and emotional distress.
Symptoms of eating disorders
Eating disorders impact a person's relationship with food, body image, and self-control. Two key disorders in this category are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. Both disorders can have serious health consequences, including heart problems, digestive issues, and hormonal imbalances. Psychological effects include anxiety, depression, and social withdrawal.
Anorexia nervosa
- Extreme restriction of food intake, leading to significant weight loss and nutritional deficiencies
- Intense fear of gaining weight, even when underweight
- Distorted body image, where individuals see themselves as overweight despite being dangerously thin
- Excessive exercise, fasting, or use of weight-control measures to maintain low body weight
Bulimia nervosa
- Cycles of binge eating, where large amounts of food are consumed in a short period
- Compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative use
- Feelings of loss of control during binge episodes, followed by guilt or shame
- Maintaining a weight that is often within a normal range, making it less visibly obvious than anorexia
Causes of Eating Disorders
Possible causes of feeding and eating disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.
Biological and genetic factors:
- Imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin and dopamine, which regulate appetite and mood
- Genetic predisposition, with a higher risk if a family member has an eating disorder
Psychological and behavioral factors:
- Perfectionism and high self-criticism, leading to strict control over food and body image
- Low self-esteem and anxiety, which contribute to unhealthy eating behaviors
- Distorted body image and fear of gaining weight
Social and cultural influences:
- Societal emphasis on thinness and beauty standards, especially in media and fashion
- Peer pressure and dieting culture, which can normalize extreme weight-control behaviors
- Stressful life events, trauma, or family dynamics that contribute to disordered eating patterns
Personality Disorders
Personality disorders are characterized by enduring patterns of internal experience and behavior that are deviant from a person's culture, pervasive and inflexible, begin in adolescence or early adulthood, are stable over time, and lead to personal distress or impairment.
Personality disorders are grouped into three clusters based on shared characteristics: Cluster A (odd or eccentric), Cluster B (dramatic or emotional), and Cluster C (anxious or fearful). Each cluster has distinct symptoms and possible causes.
Cluster A: Odd or Eccentric Personality Disorders
People with these disorders may appear socially detached, suspicious, or unusual in their thoughts and behaviors.
Paranoid Personality Disorder
- Extreme distrust and suspicion of others
- Belief that others have harmful intentions, even without evidence
- Difficulty trusting close friends, family, or coworkers
Schizoid Personality Disorder
- Strong preference for being alone and avoiding social relationships
- Limited emotional expression and indifference to praise or criticism
- Lack of interest in forming close connections
Schizotypal Personality Disorder
- Unusual thinking patterns, beliefs, or behaviors
- Social anxiety and discomfort in close relationships
- Odd speech, appearance, or belief in supernatural influences (such as telepathy)
Cluster B: Dramatic, Emotional, or Erratic Personality Disorders
This cluster includes disorders where individuals experience intense emotions, unstable relationships, impulsivity, and difficulty regulating behavior.
Antisocial Personality Disorder
- Disregard for rules, laws, and the rights of others
- Manipulative or deceitful behavior, lack of empathy
- Impulsivity and frequent aggression
Borderline Personality Disorder
- Intense fear of abandonment and unstable relationships
- Rapid mood swings and impulsive behaviors
- Self-harming tendencies and chronic feelings of emptiness
Histrionic Personality Disorder
- Excessive attention-seeking and emotional overreaction
- Strong emotions that shift quickly
- Constant need for approval and dramatic behavior
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
- Inflated sense of self-importance and entitlement
- Lack of empathy for others, need for excessive admiration
- Sensitivity to criticism despite appearing confident
Cluster C: Anxious or Fearful Personality Disorders
This cluster includes disorders where individuals struggle with excessive anxiety, fear of social rejection, and need for control or reassurance.
Avoidant Personality Disorder
- Fear of rejection and strong feelings of inadequacy
- Avoidance of social situations despite wanting relationships
- Extreme sensitivity to criticism
Dependent Personality Disorder
- Strong need for reassurance and support from others
- Difficulty making decisions without guidance
- Fear of being alone and submissive behavior in relationships
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)
- Preoccupation with order, perfection, and rigid control
- Difficulty delegating tasks and extreme focus on work over relationships
- Strong need for structure and resistance to change
Causes of Personality Disorders
Possible causes of personality disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.
Genetic and biological factors:
- Family studies suggest a genetic link, as personality disorders are more common in individuals with relatives who have similar conditions
- Differences in brain structure and function may affect emotional regulation, impulse control, and social behavior
Social and cultural factors:
- Cultural and societal expectations may contribute to perfectionism, dependency, or avoidance behaviors
- Peer relationships and social rejection can reinforce maladaptive personality traits
Behavioral and cognitive factors:
- Childhood trauma, neglect, or chaotic family environments can shape personality and coping mechanisms
- Inconsistent or extreme parenting styles may contribute to insecure attachment and emotional dysregulation
- Stressful life events may trigger or worsen symptoms of personality disorders
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.Term | Definition |
|---|---|
acrophobia | A specific phobia characterized by fear of heights. |
acute | A sudden onset or short-term manifestation of a condition, as opposed to chronic. |
agoraphobia | An anxiety disorder involving intense fear of specific social situations such as public transportation, open spaces, enclosed spaces, crowds, or being outside the home alone. |
anorexia nervosa | An eating disorder characterized by severe restriction of food intake and an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to significantly low body weight. |
antisocial personality disorder | A Cluster B personality disorder characterized by disregard for the rights of others and lack of remorse for harmful actions. |
anxiety disorders | A category of psychological disorders characterized by excessive fear and/or anxiety with related disturbances to behavior. |
arachnophobia | A specific phobia characterized by fear of spiders. |
ataque de nervios | A culture-bound anxiety disorder experienced mainly by people of Caribbean or Iberian descent, manifesting as panic attacks. |
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development. |
autism spectrum disorder (ASD) | A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent difficulties in social communication and interaction, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. |
avoidant personality disorder | A Cluster C personality disorder characterized by social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to rejection. |
biological sources | Physical or physiological factors, such as brain chemistry or neural functioning, that may contribute to the development of obsessive-compulsive disorders. |
bipolar cycling | The alternating pattern of experiencing periods of depression and mania in bipolar disorders, which can vary in duration and frequency. |
bipolar disorders | Mental health conditions characterized by alternating periods of mania and depression that can significantly impact mood, energy, and functioning. |
Bipolar I disorder | A bipolar disorder characterized by at least one manic episode, often accompanied by depressive episodes. |
Bipolar II disorder | A bipolar disorder characterized by hypomanic episodes and depressive episodes, but without full manic episodes. |
borderline personality disorder | A Cluster B personality disorder characterized by unstable relationships, intense fear of abandonment, and emotional instability. |
bulimia nervosa | An eating disorder characterized by cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as purging, fasting, or excessive exercise. |
catatonia | A state of disordered movement that may be experienced as excitement (a positive symptom) or stupor (a negative symptom manifestation). |
catatonic stupor | A negative symptom manifestation of catatonia characterized by a lack of movement or responsiveness. |
chronic | A long-term or persistent manifestation of a condition that develops gradually over time. |
Cluster A | The odd or eccentric cluster of personality disorders, including paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders. |
Cluster B | The dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster of personality disorders, including antisocial, histrionic, narcissistic, and borderline personality disorders. |
Cluster C | The anxious or fearful cluster of personality disorders, including avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. |
cognitive changes | Mental or thinking-related symptoms in depressive disorders, such as difficulty concentrating, negative thoughts, or impaired decision-making. |
compulsions | Intrusive, often repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed in response to obsessions, typically intended to reduce anxiety or prevent a feared outcome. |
culture-bound anxiety disorder | An anxiety disorder that is specific to or more prevalent in particular cultural groups, such as ataque de nervios or taijin kyofusho. |
delusions | False beliefs that persist despite contradictory evidence; a positive symptom of schizophrenia that may include delusions of persecution or grandeur. |
dependent personality disorder | A Cluster C personality disorder characterized by excessive need to be cared for and difficulty making independent decisions. |
depression | A period of persistently low mood, reduced energy, and diminished interest in activities often associated with bipolar disorders. |
depressive disorders | A category of psychological disorders characterized by persistent sad, empty, or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that impair functioning. |
developmental period | The time span during childhood and adolescence when neurodevelopmental disorders typically first appear and are identified. |
disorganized motor behavior | Abnormal or purposeless physical movements and behaviors; a symptom of schizophrenia that may manifest as catatonia. |
disorganized thinking or speech | A positive symptom of schizophrenia characterized by incoherent or illogical thought patterns and speech, such as word salad. |
dissociation | A disconnection or separation from consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, or behavior. |
dissociative amnesia | A dissociative disorder involving the inability to recall important personal information, typically related to traumatic or stressful events. |
dissociative disorders | A category of psychological disorders characterized by disruptions in consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior. |
dissociative identity disorder | A dissociative disorder characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states or identities, often resulting from severe trauma. |
dopamine hypothesis | A biological theory suggesting that schizophrenia may result from imbalances in dopamine, a neurotransmitter in the brain. |
emotional detachment | A symptom characterized by reduced emotional responsiveness and disconnection from others, often occurring in trauma and stressor-related disorders. |
emotional responses | Feelings and affective reactions that can be maladaptive and contribute to the etiology of obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. |
empty mood | A symptom of depressive disorders characterized by a sense of emotional numbness or lack of feeling rather than active sadness. |
feeding and eating disorders | Psychological disorders characterized by altered consumption or absorption of food that impairs health or psychological functioning. |
flashbacks | Intrusive, vivid recollections of traumatic or stressful experiences that feel as if they are happening in the present moment. |
flat affect | A negative symptom of schizophrenia characterized by a lack of emotional expression or reduced emotional responsiveness. |
fugue | A dissociative state involving sudden, unexpected travel away from home or one's usual environment, often accompanied by amnesia about one's identity or past. |
generalized anxiety disorder | An anxiety disorder characterized by prolonged experiences of nonspecific anxiety or fear. |
genetic sources | Hereditary factors and family history that may predispose individuals to developing obsessive-compulsive and related disorders. |
hallucinations | False perceptions or sensory experiences that occur without external stimuli; a positive symptom of schizophrenia that may involve one or more senses. |
histrionic personality disorder | A Cluster B personality disorder characterized by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior. |
hoarding disorder | A disorder characterized by persistent difficulty discarding possessions, regardless of their actual value, resulting in excessive accumulation of items. |
hostility | Aggressive or antagonistic behavior and attitudes that may manifest as a symptom of trauma and stressor-related disorders. |
hypervigilance | A state of heightened alertness and constant scanning of the environment for potential threats, often seen in trauma and stressor-related disorders. |
insomnia | A sleep disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep. |
irritable mood | A symptom of depressive disorders characterized by increased irritability, frustration, or anger rather than sadness. |
learned associations | Connections between stimuli formed through experience that can contribute to the development and maintenance of obsessive-compulsive symptoms. |
major depressive disorder | A depressive disorder characterized by one or more major depressive episodes involving depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure lasting at least two weeks with significant functional impairment. |
maladaptive thinking | Unhealthy or counterproductive thought patterns that contribute to psychological distress and the development of psychological disorders. |
mania | A period of abnormally elevated mood, increased energy, and heightened activity often associated with bipolar disorders. |
narcissistic personality disorder | A Cluster B personality disorder characterized by grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy. |
negative symptoms | Symptoms of schizophrenia characterized by the absence or reduction of typical behaviors, such as flat affect or lack of movement. |
neurodevelopmental disorders | A group of disorders that begin during the developmental period and involve difficulties with behaviors and skills appropriate for a person's age or maturity level. |
obsessions | Intrusive, unwanted thoughts, images, or urges that cause anxiety or distress and are difficult to control or dismiss. |
obsessive-compulsive disorder | A mental disorder characterized by the presence of obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors) that significantly interfere with daily functioning. |
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder | A Cluster C personality disorder characterized by preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control. |
panic attacks | Unanticipated and overwhelming biological, cognitive, and emotional experiences of fear or anxiety that occur in panic disorder. |
panic disorder | An anxiety disorder characterized by the experience of panic attacks, which are unanticipated and overwhelming biological, cognitive, and emotional experiences of fear or anxiety. |
paranoid personality disorder | A Cluster A personality disorder characterized by pervasive distrust and suspicion of others. |
persistent depressive disorder | A depressive disorder characterized by a chronically depressed mood lasting at least two years in adults, with symptoms less severe than major depressive disorder but more enduring. |
personality disorders | Enduring patterns of internal experience and behavior that deviate from one's culture, are inflexible and pervasive, begin in adolescence or early adulthood, remain stable over time, and cause personal distress or impairment. |
physical changes | Bodily symptoms in depressive disorders, such as changes in sleep, appetite, energy level, or psychomotor activity. |
positive symptoms | Symptoms of schizophrenia involving the presence of abnormal experiences or behaviors, such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized speech. |
posttraumatic stress disorder | A trauma and stressor-related disorder that develops following exposure to a traumatic event and involves symptoms such as flashbacks, hypervigilance, and emotional distress. |
sad mood | A primary emotional symptom of depressive disorders characterized by persistent feelings of sadness or unhappiness. |
schizoid personality disorder | A Cluster A personality disorder characterized by detachment from social relationships and restricted emotional expression. |
schizophrenic spectrum disorders | A group of mental health conditions characterized by disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior, including symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thinking. |
schizotypal personality disorder | A Cluster A personality disorder characterized by eccentric behavior, unusual perceptual experiences, and social anxiety. |
severe anxiety | Intense fear or worry that persists as a symptom of trauma and stressor-related disorders. |
social anxiety disorder | An anxiety disorder involving intense fear of being judged or watched by others. |
specific phobia | An anxiety disorder involving fear or anxiety toward a specific object or situation, such as heights or spiders. |
stress | A psychological and physiological response to demands or threats that can affect behavior, mental processes, and physical health. |
taijin kyofusho | A culture-bound anxiety disorder experienced mainly by Japanese people in which individuals fear that others are judging their bodies as undesirable, offensive, or unpleasing. |
trauma | A deeply distressing or disturbing experience that can serve as a cause or contributing factor to dissociative disorders. |
trauma and stressor-related disorders | A category of psychological disorders characterized by exposure to a traumatic or stressful event followed by psychological distress and maladaptive symptoms. |
word salad | A pattern of speech in which words are strung together in nonsensical or incoherent ways, reflecting disorganized thinking. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What's the difference between ADHD and autism spectrum disorder?
Both ADHD and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are neurodevelopmental disorders (onset in development) but they focus on different kinds of behavior. ADHD is marked by persistent inattention (difficulty sustaining focus, careless mistakes), and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity (fidgeting, trouble staying seated, acting without thinking). ASD is characterized mainly by challenges in social communication/interaction (trouble with back-and-forth conversation, understanding social cues) plus restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior or interests and often sensory differences. Symptoms must be inappropriate for the person’s age or maturity. Causes for both can be genetic, physiological, or environmental (CED 5.4.A.1–2). For the AP exam, know the core symptom differences and that both are neurodevelopmental in origin; you might see questions asking you to identify symptoms or causes. For a quick review, check the Topic 5.4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
Why do people with schizophrenia hear voices that aren't really there?
Hearing voices (auditory hallucinations) is one of the “positive” symptoms of schizophrenia—it’s a false perception, not just imagination (CED: 5.4.B.1.ii). Scientists think several factors cause them: biological/genetic risk (family history), prenatal factors (like exposure to viruses), and brain chemistry differences—especially overactivity in dopamine pathways (the dopamine hypothesis, CED: 5.4.B.2). Those brain differences can make internal thoughts or memories get mis-processed as external sounds. Stress and sleep loss can make episodes worse. Treatments (medication and therapy) often target those neurotransmitter imbalances and coping skills to reduce hallucinations. For AP review, this connects directly to Topic 5.4 (schizophrenic spectrum disorders)—see the Topic 5.4 study guide for a clear summary (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K). If you want more practice questions on these concepts, check Fiveable’s practice bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
I'm confused about positive vs negative symptoms in schizophrenia - can someone explain?
Positive symptoms = symptoms that add abnormal thoughts or behaviors. Think delusions (false beliefs), hallucinations (false perceptions), disorganized thinking/speech (e.g., word salad), and disorganized motor behavior (e.g., excited, purposeless movements). These are listed as positive in the CED (5.4.B.1.i–iii, iv). Negative symptoms = symptoms that reflect a loss or reduction of normal functions: flat affect (little emotional expression), alogia (reduced speech), avolition (lack of motivation), and catatonic stupor (lack of movement). The CED notes catatonia can show as either excitement (positive) or stupor (negative) (5.4.B.1.iv–v). Causes: AP expects you to connect symptoms to biological/genetic links—e.g., dopamine imbalances (dopamine hypothesis), prenatal viral exposure, and heredity (5.4.B.2). On the exam you may be asked to describe symptoms and possible causes (Learning Objective 5.4.B). For a focused review, see the Topic 5.4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K). For more practice, try the AP Psych practice set (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
What causes bipolar disorder and how is it different from just being moody?
Bipolar disorder (Topic 5.4.D) is a mood disorder marked by distinct periods of mania (or hypomania) and depression. Mania includes very elevated or irritable mood, grandiosity, racing thoughts, decreased need for sleep, talkativeness, and risky behavior; hypomania is a milder form. Bipolar I has at least one full manic episode; Bipolar II has hypomanic episodes plus major depressive episodes. Causes are likely biological/genetic and can include social or cognitive factors (CED 5.4.D.2). How it’s different from being moody: ordinary moodiness is short-lived, less intense, and doesn’t severely disrupt functioning. Bipolar episodes last longer, meet clinical criteria for severity/duration, and cause significant impairment or risk. For exam prep, know symptoms, cycling, and possible causes (CED 5.4.D.1–2). Review the Topic 5.4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
How do you tell the difference between major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder?
Major depressive disorder (MDD) and persistent depressive disorder (PDD, formerly dysthymia) both involve depressed mood and changes in thinking/behavior, but you tell them apart mainly by duration and severity. MDD = discrete episodes of at least 2 weeks with five (or more) symptoms (e.g., depressed mood, sleep/appetite changes, low energy, worthlessness, suicidal thoughts) that cause significant impairment. PDD = a chronic, milder-but-longer course: depressed mood most days for ≥2 years in adults (≥1 year in kids), with fewer symptoms needed, but lasting and impairing. Clinically, MDD is episodic and often more severe per episode; PDD is persistent and can include intermittent major episodes. Both are in Topic 5.4.C of the CED (depressive disorders)—review the AP study guide for this topic (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new) to drill examples you might see on the exam.
What's the dopamine hypothesis for schizophrenia?
The dopamine hypothesis for schizophrenia says that imbalances in the neurotransmitter dopamine help explain symptoms. Specifically, too much dopamine activity in certain brain pathways (like the mesolimbic system) is linked to positive symptoms—delusions and hallucinations—while too little dopamine activity in prefrontal areas may relate to negative symptoms and cognitive problems. This idea is supported by the fact that many antipsychotic medications reduce dopamine (D2 receptor blockers) and can lessen positive symptoms. The CED lists neurotransmitter imbalance (dopamine) as a possible biological cause for schizophrenia (Topic 5.4.B.2). It’s important to know this for the exam as a biological explanation you can compare to genetic or prenatal-virus explanations. For a focused review, check the Topic 5.4 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K), and practice related questions at Fiveable’s practice hub (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
Can someone explain what agoraphobia actually is because I keep mixing it up with other phobias?
Agoraphobia is an anxiety disorder where someone has an intense fear of being in certain situations where escape might be hard or help might not be available—for example, using public transport, being in open spaces, enclosed spaces (shops/theaters), standing in a crowd, or being outside the home alone (CED 5.4.E.1.ii). It’s different from a specific phobia (fear of one object/situation like heights) and from social anxiety (fear of being judged); agoraphobia focuses on those broad situations and can co-occur with panic disorder (panic attacks can trigger avoidance). Causes listed in the CED include learned associations, maladaptive thinking, and biological/genetic factors (5.4.E.2). For AP exam study, know the CED definition and how agoraphobia contrasts with specific phobia, social anxiety, and panic disorder (Topic 5.4). For a quick review, see the Topic 5.4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
What are obsessions vs compulsions in OCD?
Obsessions are unwanted, intrusive thoughts, images, or urges that cause significant anxiety (e.g., fear of germs, constant doubt). Compulsions are repetitive behaviors or mental acts a person feels driven to perform to reduce the anxiety from those obsessions (e.g., repeated handwashing, checking locks, counting). In OCD the cycle is: obsession → anxiety → compulsion (temporary relief) → reinforcement of the obsession/compulsion loop. The AP CED describes obsessions as intrusive thoughts and compulsions as repetitive behaviors intended to address those thoughts; causes can include learned associations, maladaptive thinking, and biological/genetic factors (5.4.F.1–2). For AP exam prep, be ready to identify which is which and explain the anxiety-relief cycle. For a quick review, check the Topic 5.4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
I don't understand dissociative identity disorder - is it real or just made up?
Short answer: dissociative identity disorder (DID) is a real diagnosis, not “made up,” but it’s rare and controversial. Why: DID is listed in diagnostic manuals and covered in the AP CED under dissociative disorders (Topic 5.4.G). It’s characterized by dissociations in identity, memory, and consciousness—people show two or more distinct identities and gaps in recall. The AP framework notes possible causes often involve severe trauma or stress (especially early-life trauma). Clinically, some researchers question overdiagnosis or iatrogenic effects (therapy-related), which is why debate exists, but that doesn’t mean DID isn’t a recognized disorder. For AP prep: know the symptoms (identity fragmentation, memory gaps) and the trauma-related causes (5.4.G.1–2). For more review, check the Topic 5.4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
What's the difference between anorexia and bulimia nervosa?
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are both feeding/eating disorders (CED Topic 5.4.I) but they differ in core symptoms and medical risk. Anorexia involves intense restriction of food intake, very low body weight (significant weight loss), and often a distorted body image or fear of gaining weight. Bulimia involves repeated binge-eating episodes followed by compensatory behaviors (most commonly vomiting, laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise) to prevent weight gain; people with bulimia often have normal or fluctuating weight. Both disorders have biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, and cognitive causes (CED 5.4.I.2), and both involve preoccupation with body shape/weight, but anorexia’s hallmark is severe underweight/restriction while bulimia’s hallmark is binge–compensate cycles. For the AP exam, know these distinctions and examples of symptoms for short-answer or multiple-choice questions. Review the Topic 5.4 study guide for more examples (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
How do personality disorders develop and why are they split into three clusters?
Personality disorders develop as long-term, inflexible patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that deviate from cultural expectations, begin in adolescence or early adulthood, are stable over time, and cause distress or impairment (CED 5.4.J.1). Possible causes span biological/genetic factors and social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive influences (CED 5.4.J.2)—for example, temperament or heritable traits interacting with childhood trauma, parenting, or learned maladaptive ways of thinking. Clinicians group personality disorders into three clusters to make diagnosis easier by organizing similar symptom patterns: Cluster A (odd/eccentric: paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal), Cluster B (dramatic/emotional/erratic: antisocial, histrionic, narcissistic, borderline), and Cluster C (anxious/fearful: avoidant, dependent, obsessive-compulsive personality disorder) (CED 5.4.J.1.i–iii). For AP exam prep, focus on the defining features and possible causes listed in the CED and review the Topic 5.4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K). For more practice, try the AP Psych practice set (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
What causes PTSD and why do some people get it after trauma but others don't?
PTSD develops after exposure to a traumatic event (Topic 5.4.H in the CED). Symptoms include hypervigilance, flashbacks, insomnia, emotional detachment, and severe anxiety. Causes aren’t just the event itself—risk depends on multiple factors: severity and proximity of the trauma, prior trauma or mental-health history, weaker social support, and biological/genetic vulnerabilities (e.g., differences in amygdala/hippocampus reactivity and HPA-axis stress responses). Learning processes (classical conditioning) can make neutral cues trigger intense fear. That’s why two people can have the same trauma but only one develops PTSD: one may have protective factors (strong support, coping skills, resilient biology) while the other has risk factors (previous trauma, genetic sensitivity, or intense exposure). For AP review, focus on trauma/stressor-related disorders, symptoms, and causes in Topic 5.4.H (see the Fiveable study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K). Practice more questions at https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new.
Is social anxiety disorder the same thing as being shy or introverted?
Short answer: no—social anxiety disorder (SAD) is not the same as being shy or introverted. Being shy/introverted is a personality or temperamental trait—you might feel awkward in social settings but still function fine. SAD (listed under Topic 5.4.E: anxiety disorders) is a diagnosable disorder characterized by an intense, excessive fear of being judged or watched, persistent avoidance or distress, and impairment in daily life (school, work, relationships). Key differences: severity (normal shyness vs. excessive fear), duration/persistence, and functional impairment. SAD often causes panic, avoidance, or marked distress that interferes with functioning—shyness usually doesn’t. For AP exam review, focus on the ED definition in 5.4.E.1.iv and how anxiety disorders involve excessive fear and behavioral disturbance. For extra practice and review, check the Topic 5.4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
What's a panic attack actually feel like and how is panic disorder different from other anxiety disorders?
A panic attack feels like a sudden, intense surge of fear or discomfort that peaks within minutes and includes strong biological, cognitive, and emotional symptoms—racing heart, shortness of breath, chest pain, dizziness, sweating, numbness, derealization, and catastrophic thoughts (you might feel like you’re dying or losing control). Panic disorder is when someone has recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and persistent worry or behavioral changes because of them (avoidance, for example). That makes it distinct from other anxiety disorders in the CED: specific phobia is tied to a specific object/situation, social anxiety is fear of evaluation, GAD is prolonged, nonspecific worry, and agoraphobia involves fear of certain situations. Panic disorder can also appear as culture-bound expressions like ataque de nervios (CED 5.4.E.1.iii). For AP exam review, see the Topic 5.4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K) and extra practice (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).
Why are there culture-bound anxiety disorders like taijin kyofusho?
Culture shapes how people experience and express anxiety—that’s why culture-bound anxiety disorders like taijin kyofusho exist. Taijin kyofusho is a culturally specific form of social anxiety (noted in the CED under 5.4.E) where people fear that their body or appearance offends others. Cultural norms about shame, self vs. group, and acceptable social behavior shape what thoughts become excessive (maladaptive thinking) and what social situations trigger fear (learned associations). Biological vulnerability or genetics can still play a role, but culture influences symptom content and whether a pattern is labeled a disorder. For the AP exam, recognize this as an example of how social/cultural factors interact with anxiety disorders (5.4.E.2). Want to review more examples and practice questions? Check the Topic 5.4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-6/4-selection-of-categories-of-psychological-disorders/study-guide/0Drercifc49SQL8K) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).