6.28 Epitaphs and Inscriptions Study Guide

You don’t have to brute-force every word—study smarter using AP-aligned strategies. First: know the required vocab list cold (CED VOC-1.A). Use spaced-repetition flashcards (Anki or Quizlet) that test lemma + common forms (nominative/genitive for nouns, principal parts for verbs). Aim for 15–25 new lemmas/week and daily review—consistency beats cramming. Group words by roots/prefixes/cognates and semantic fields (VOC-1.B, VOC-2.B) so you can infer unfamiliar words in context. Drill short sight-reading passages (discrete sight prose/poetry practice) to tie meaning to syntax (CED GRAM-1.A/B). Make two card types: meaning-in-isolation and meaning-in-context (sentence). Practice retrieval under time (multiple-choice & translation drills) because vocab recognition is explicitly tested (Skill 1.A ~5–15% of exam). For AP-specific materials, use the Medieval/Later Authors study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284), Unit 1 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/unit-1) and thousands of practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin). Small, regular steps + context practice = lasting vocab mastery.

Nominative = the “doer” or name. It marks the subject of a finite verb (Puella cantat = the girl sings) and the predicate noun after forms of sum/esse (Marcus est puer = Marcus is a boy). On the AP you’ll often be asked to “describe the grammatical use” of a nominative (CED GRAM-1: case shows function). Accusative = the “receiver” or target. It most often marks the direct object (Puella puerum videt = the girl sees the boy) and is used after many prepositions to show motion toward (ad urbem) or extent of time/space. It also appears in certain set idioms and object-infinitive constructions. How to use this on the exam: identify case endings, then state the function (subject, direct object, predicate nominative, motion toward, etc.). Practice spotting nominative vs. accusative in passages (CED skills GRAM-1 & 1.B). For extra practice see the Medieval/Later Authors study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284), Unit 1 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/unit-1), and 1000+ practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin).

When you hit a Latin word you’ve never seen, don’t panic—use these step-by-step moves the AP tests expect (CED VOC-1.B, VOC-2.B, GRAM-1/B): 1. Look at form first. Is it a noun (case ending), adjective, or verb (person/tense/mood)? That narrows meaning fast (CED GRAM-1.A, GRAM-1.B). 2. Use context clues: nearby words, verbs it pairs with, and the sentence’s flow. Polysemous words pick their meaning from context (CED VOC-2.A). 3. Break the word into parts: root + prefix/suffix. Latin prefixes (in-, re-, sub-) and suffixes (-tor, -tio, -alis) give big hints (CED VOC-2.B). 4. Try cognates (English, Spanish, French). They often point to a likely meaning. 5. Check grammar: case shows function (subject, object, etc.), verb mood changes sense (jussive, subjunctive). That helps translate even if one word’s fuzzy (CED GRAM-1.A/B). 6. If unsure, translate roughly and move on; exam passages reward accurate sense over perfect dictionary fixes (sight-prose: discrete/short sets on the exam). For practice, use the Medieval/Later Authors study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284), the Unit 1 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/unit-1), and 1,000+ practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin) to get fast at these strategies.

Use both—but choose which first based on the clue type. Start with word-formation: check roots, prefixes, suffixes, and cognates to get a plausible basic meaning (CED VOC-1.B, VOC-1.A). Many Medieval/ ecclesiastical words still show familiar Latin roots (e.g., -atio, -arius, re-, in-). That gives a quick gloss you can slot into the sentence. Then use context clues to confirm or refine that guess (CED VOC-2.A). Look at grammar (case, tense, mood—GRAM-1.A, GRAM-1.B) and nearby words: subject/object, prepositions, verbs, contrast words (sed, tamen), or modifiers. Context is essential for polysemous words (words with multiple senses) and for exact translation on the exam—meaning in context is what the CED tests. Practical order on the AP: 1) parse forms (grammar), 2) use roots/cognates for a tentative meaning, 3) confirm/change with context. Practice this on the Medieval/Later Authors guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and on unit review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/unit-1). For extra drills, try the 1,000+ practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin).

Start with the basics: Latin verbs show person, number, tense, voice, and mood—so always learn the four principal parts (1st sg. present, infinitive, 1st sg. perfect, supine/ppp). From those you form: - Present system: present, imperfect (present stem + -ba-), future (1st/2nd: -bo/-bis/-bit; 3rd/4th: -am/-es/-et or -am/-es/-et in later patterns). - Perfect system: perfect, pluperfect (-era-), future perfect (-eri-) from the perfect stem. - Subjunctive and passive forms derive from stems plus standard endings. For medieval/later authors expect two practical shifts: (1) increased use of periphrastic constructions (e.g., forms with habere/tenere + participle for aspect or obligation) and more flexible word-formation; (2) simplifications/orthographic variants (ecclesiastical Latin vowel shifts, occasional mixing of classical forms). But grammar still follows CED GRAM-1: identify person/number/tense/voice/mood to determine meaning. Memorize irregulars (sum, eo, volo, fero) since they appear in medieval texts too. For targeted practice and medieval examples, check the Topic 1.28 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and drill conjugation + sight-prose sets at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin).

Good question—knowing common prefixes and suffixes really speeds up VOC-2-style guessing on the exam (CED: “word formation patterns...aid in understanding unfamiliar vocabulary”). Here are the most useful ones to memorize and practice. Common prefixes - in-/im- (not / into)—inactive, implicit - re- (again, back)—re- + verb = repeat - ex-/e- (out of, former)—exit, exactus - ad- (to, toward; assimilates: ac-, ap-, etc.)—ad + fer = afferre - sub- (under)—sub- + ject = subject - con-/com-/co- (with, together)—convenire, collis - dis-/di- (apart, not)—discedere, difficult (negative sense) - per- (through, thoroughly)—percello - inter- (between)—interficio (note: inter- + fic- = between + do/make) - ab-/abs- (away from)—abducere - ob- (against, toward)—obstare Common suffixes - -tio / -tionis (action/result)—actio, narratio - -or / -tor (agent)—doctor, auctor - -us / -a / -um (noun/adj endings)—corpus, humilis - -itas / -tatis (quality)—bonitas, gravitas - -bilis / -abilis (able to be)—amabilis, legibilis - -mentum (means/result)—documentum - -arium / -arius (place/related to)—votarium, salutarius - -ivus (tending to)—passivus - -osus (full of)—grandiosus - diminutives: -ulus / -ula / -ulum—libellus How to use this on the AP exam: identify a root + prefix/suffix, pick the sense that fits the context (CED VOC-2.B). Practice spotting these in medieval/ecclesiastical Latin too (Topic 1.28 resources)—see the Medieval/Later Authors study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and drill 1,000+ practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin). Fiveable’s guides and practice sets are great for this.

Gender in Latin is a grammatical property (masculine, feminine, neuter) that every noun has; it’s not always “natural” (puella is feminine, agricola is masculine though a person). Gender affects agreement: adjectives, pronouns, and participles must match the noun’s gender (and number/case). That matters because meaning and syntax depend on those matches—e.g., which noun an adjective or relative pronoun modifies, or whether a participle refers to a subject or object. On the AP exam you’ll be asked to “describe how grammar contributes to meaning” (GRAM-1 in the CED), so recognizing gender lets you parse sentences, pick correct translations, and answer questions about function. Practice spotting gender endings (1st: -a usually fem.; 2nd: -us/-er masc., -um neut.; 3rd mixed) and watch agreement in context. For extra reviews and practice problems see the Medieval/Later Authors study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and Unit 1 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/unit-1). Fiveable also has 1000+ practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin).

Short answer: medieval and later Latin mostly follow classical mood rules, but writers (especially ecclesiastical and scholastic authors) are less consistent—they simplify and sometimes prefer the indicative where a classical author would use the subjunctive. So don’t expect a one-to-one match with Vergil/Pliny. What to watch for on the exam: - Subjunctive still marks jussive/hortatory (let X...), purpose/result (ut/ut non), and many independent wishes/optatives—those uses are usually reliable. - Medieval writers often use the indicative more in subordinate clauses (especially after quod, quia, and in some relative clauses) and in indirect statements/questions where classical authors might use subjunctives or subjunctive periphrases. - Sequence of tenses and classical subjunctive patterns appear, but be ready for variability: rely on context, conjunctions (ut, ne, cum, si, quod), and meaning, not just form. How to practice: compare medieval passages with classical examples and note differences. Review Topic 1.28 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and do lots of sight-prose practice (unit overview: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/unit-1; practice bank: https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin). That kind of exposure trains you to spot when mood signals meaning versus when the author is being flexible.

Active vs. passive in Latin is about who does the action vs. who receives it. How to spot it quickly: - Look at verb endings. Present active: -o, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt (amat = “he/she loves”). Present passive: -or, -ris/-re, -tur, -mur, -mini, -ntur (amatur = “he/she is loved”). - Infinitives: active = amare; passive = amari. - Perfect system: active perfect = amavit (“he loved”); passive perfect = amatus est (“he was loved”)—note the perfect passive uses a perfect passive participle (amatus, -a, -um) + a form of sum. - Future passive periphrasis: amatus erit = “he will have been loved.” - Watch for deponent verbs: they look passive (e.g., hortatur) but mean active (“he urges”). - Other clues: agent may appear in an a/ab + ablative phrase in passive (“a puero” = “by the boy”). On the AP, GRAM-1 (verbs: person/number/tense/voice) is tested a lot—practice spotting endings and participles in sight passages. For extra drills, check the Topic 1.28 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and thousands of practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin).

When a Latin word has multiple meanings, pick the one that fits the context—that’s exactly what the CED expects (VOC-2.A, SKILL-1). Do this in four quick steps: 1. Check grammar first: case, number, gender for nouns; person, number, tense, voice, mood for verbs (GRAM-1.A, GRAM-1.B). The form often rules out meanings. 2. Read surrounding words: syntax and collocations narrow sense (prepositions, verbs it pairs with, purpose/result clauses). Context clues are the top AP strategy. 3. Use word formation and cognates: prefixes, suffixes, and familiar roots point to likely senses (VOC-1.B). 4. Test each plausible meaning in the sentence—pick the one that makes coherent sense with the author’s tone and genre (prose/epistolary etc.). On the exam you’ll often be asked to “identify the meaning in context” (1.A). Practice this pattern with passages in the Medieval/Later Authors study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and hundreds of practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin) to build instinct.

Because Latin and English share lots of history, some words look alike but don’t mean the same—these are “false friends.” There are three common reasons on AP Latin you should know: - Cognates vs. false friends: Some English words come from Latin roots (like actor ← actor) so they mean similar things. Others look similar because they share a root but shifted meaning over time (e.g., Latin medicus “doctor” vs. English medicine/medical). - Semantic change in medieval/ecclesiastical Latin: Medieval writers (Boethius, Isidore, Gregory) used Latin differently; new religious or legal senses developed, so familiar-looking words can mean something specialized in medieval texts. - Word-formation and context: Prefixes/suffixes change meaning (re- + verb can imply different nuance). On the exam, use context clues and grammar (case, tense, syntax) to pin down meaning (CED VOC-2, GRAM-1). Practice spotting these in sight passages—use the Medieval/Later Authors study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and try AP-style practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin).

Think of Latin case endings as job titles for words—they tell you what each noun does in a sentence. Key ones to know: - Nominative: subject (who/what does the action). Example: puella ambulat = the girl walks. - Accusative: direct object (who/what receives the action) or motion toward. Example: puer puerum videt = the boy sees the boy. - Genitive: shows possession (“of” or ’s). Example: liber puellae = the girl’s book / book of the girl. - Dative: indirect object (to/for). Example: dona matri dat = he gives gifts to his mother. - Ablative: many uses—means, manner, accompaniment, place from/with/by. Example: cum amico (with a friend), via (by the road). - Vocative: direct address (hey, Marcus!). Verbs give person, number, tense, mood; the noun’s case tells how it links to the verb. On the AP exam you’ll be asked to “describe how grammar contributes” and identify cases in context (CED GRAM-1.A/B). If you want practice, check the Medieval/Later Authors study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and hundreds of practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin).

Focus on the grammar that actually affects meaning: cases on nouns (case = function), and verb forms (person, number, tense, voice, mood). For medieval/eccclesiastical Latin you should especially watch for: - Cases doing the same jobs as classical Latin (GRAM-1.A): identify nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative to find subject, possession, indirect object, direct object, and means/agent. - Verbal morphology (GRAM-1.B): identify finite verbs (person/number) and key moods (indicative vs. subjunctive) to follow tense and purpose. - Common medieval shifts: simpler word order (more like modern languages), more periphrastic constructions (e.g., forms with esse or habere), church vocabulary and borrowings, and orthographic variants (u/v, i/j) that don’t change grammar. These can change surface appearance but not core syntactic roles. On the AP exam you’ll be asked to identify how grammar affects meaning (1.B/GRAM-1). Practice applying case and verb analysis to sight prose in the Medieval/Later Authors guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and use 1000+ practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin) to drill spotting cases, subjunctives, and periphrastic tenses.

Long Latin words become manageable if you parse their parts: prefix + root (stem) + suffix. Steps you can use on the exam (CED VOC-1.B / VOC-2.B): 1. Spot a familiar prefix (in-, re-, sub-, trans-) and peel it off to get the core meaning. 2. Identify the root/stem—that often carries the main idea (port = carry, dict = say, leg = read). Cognates (English relatives) help fast. 3. Look at suffixes (-io, -atus, -or, -bilis, -mentum) to tell part of speech and nuance (–or = agent, –bilis = able to). 4. Check endings for grammar (case/tense) to fit the word into the sentence (CED GRAM-1/GRAM-2). 5. Confirm with context: polysemous words need context to pick the right sense. Example: in+credibilis = not+believable → incredible/credible nuance. For more practice, see the Topic 1.28 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284) and drill 1000+ practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin).

Start by reading the noun’s case, number, and gender—Latin marks function on the noun itself (GRAM-1.A). Learn the common case uses: nominative = subject, genitive = possession (“of”), dative = indirect object (“to/for”), accusative = direct object or motion toward, ablative = means/agent/with/from, vocative = address. Check agreement: adjectives, participles, and relative pronouns match the noun’s case/number/gender—that often nails who’s doing what. Look at the verb: its voice and transitivity tell you whether a noun is likely subject, object, or object of a preposition. Prepositions and certain verbs demand specific cases (e.g., cum + ablative). Word order and context help when forms are ambiguous (e.g., two nominatives—pick the logical subject). For exam prep, practice “identify the grammatical use” and “translate in context” tasks on AP free-response and multiple-choice (CED: GRAM-1.B and 1.D). Want drills? Use the Topic 1.28 Medieval/Later Authors study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/medieval-later-authors-various-study-guide/study-guide/5fe1ee9d69a0e284), Unit 1 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-latin/unit-1) and 1000+ practice items (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-latin).