Defining and Acquiring Culture
Anthropological definition of culture
The most foundational definition in anthropology comes from Edward Burnor Tylor (1871), who described culture as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as member of society."
The key phrase here is acquired as a member of society. Culture isn't something you're born with. It's something you pick up by living among other people. Tylor's definition set the stage for how anthropologists still think about culture today: as a distinct realm of human experience, separate from biology or genetics.
Natural instincts vs. learned behaviors
Understanding culture requires distinguishing it from instinct.
- Natural instincts are innate, biologically determined behaviors shared across a species. They don't require learning. Think of a newborn's suckling reflex or the fight-or-flight response. These are hardwired.
- Learned cultural behaviors are acquired through social interaction and vary across societies. Language, table manners, religious practices, and greeting customs all fall into this category.
The distinction matters because instincts are largely fixed and universal, while cultural behaviors are flexible and diverse. That flexibility is what allows human groups to adapt to vastly different environments and circumstances.
Acquisition of cultural knowledge
Enculturation is the process by which you learn and internalize the norms, values, and behaviors of your society. It starts in childhood and never fully stops.
Enculturation happens through two channels:
- Intentional learning involves direct instruction. Parents teach children manners. Teachers pass on knowledge in schools. Religious leaders convey moral teachings in churches, mosques, or temples. Someone is deliberately trying to show you how things work.
- Unintentional learning happens through observation, imitation, and just being around other people. Children pick up gender expectations by watching adults and peers. You absorb cultural attitudes through media like television, movies, and social media, often without realizing it.
Together, these channels drive cultural transmission, the passing of knowledge, beliefs, and practices from one generation to the next. This is how cultures maintain continuity while also gradually evolving over time.
The Interplay of Culture and Biology
Culture and biology aren't opposing forces. They interact in a two-way relationship that constantly shapes human behavior.
How culture shapes biology
Cultural practices can directly affect biological outcomes:
- Diet and food preparation influence nutrition and health. Some cultures ferment foods in ways that increase nutrient availability; others observe food taboos that limit certain nutrients.
- Marriage patterns shape genetic variation within populations. Endogamy (marrying within a group) concentrates certain genetic traits, while exogamy (marrying outside the group) increases genetic diversity.
- Medical systems affect disease and well-being, from traditional herbal remedies to modern healthcare infrastructure.
How biology shapes culture
Biological realities also influence cultural development:
- Physiological differences between sexes have contributed to gendered divisions of labor in many societies, though the specific roles vary widely across cultures.
- Cognitive tendencies may influence which cultural ideas spread most easily. Humans seem predisposed toward things like storytelling, music, and spiritual belief.
- Evolutionary pressures can favor certain cultural traits. For example, populations with a long history of dairy herding developed lactose tolerance, and highland populations developed biological adaptations to low oxygen at high altitudes.
The relationship is bidirectional and ongoing. Biology creates constraints and possibilities; culture works within and reshapes those boundaries. Neither one alone explains human behavior.
Cultural Dynamics and Diversity
Cultural universals and diversity
Some practices show up in every known human society. Language, family structures, and some form of religious or spiritual belief are all cultural universals. These suggest shared aspects of the human condition.
But within those universals, the variation is enormous. Every society develops its own customs, traditions, and worldviews. This cultural diversity reflects cultural adaptation: groups develop specific practices suited to their particular environment, history, and social circumstances. All humans have language, but there are over 7,000 distinct languages. All societies have family structures, but what "family" looks like differs dramatically.
Cultural norms and values
- Cultural norms are the expected behaviors and unwritten rules that guide social interactions. They tell you what's appropriate in a given context, from how close to stand to someone during conversation to how to behave at a funeral.
- Cultural values are the deeper ideals and principles a culture considers important, like individualism, honor, or community solidarity.
Norms and values work together. Values shape what a society cares about; norms translate those values into everyday behavior. Both influence everything from daily interactions to major life decisions.
Cultural change
Cultures are never static. They constantly evolve in response to both internal pressures and outside contact. Major sources of cultural change include:
- Technological advancements that alter daily life and social organization
- Environmental shifts that force new adaptations
- Cultural diffusion, the spread of ideas, practices, or technologies through contact with other cultures
- Social movements and revolutions that challenge existing norms and power structures
The pace of change varies. Some societies transform rapidly through sudden contact or upheaval; others shift gradually over generations. Understanding that culture is always in motion is central to anthropological thinking.