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Intro to Anthropology
Table of Contents
Unit 7 Overview: Economic Anthropology: Work and Value
7.1 Economies: Two Ways to Study Them
7.2 Modes of Subsistence
7.3 Gathering and Hunting
7.4 Pastoralism
7.5 Plant Cultivation: Horticulture and Agriculture
7.6 Exchange, Value, and Consumption
7.7 Industrialism and Postmodernity

🗿intro to anthropology review

7.5 Plant Cultivation: Horticulture and Agriculture

Citation:

Plant cultivation methods revolutionized human societies. Horticulture involves small-scale, diverse crop growing using simple tools, supporting egalitarian communities. Agriculture enables large-scale, intensive farming, leading to surplus production, population growth, and complex social structures.

These methods transformed human settlements. Agriculture's surplus production allowed specialization and division of labor, fostering trade networks and political centralization. This shift from nomadic to settled life laid the foundation for early civilizations and shaped the course of human history.

Plant Cultivation Methods

Horticulture vs agriculture methods

  • Horticulture involves small-scale, diverse crop cultivation using hand tools (hoes) and simple irrigation (watering cans) in gardens or small plots, relying on natural rainfall or small-scale irrigation to produce a variety of crops (potatoes, squash) for subsistence and local trade
  • Agriculture involves large-scale, intensive monoculture of crops (wheat, corn) using complex irrigation systems (canals, aqueducts), plows, and draft animals (oxen) in extensive fields, requiring significant labor and resource management to produce surplus for trade, storage, and supporting non-agricultural populations
    • Utilizes irrigation techniques to ensure consistent water supply for crops

Cultural impact of plant cultivation

  • Horticulture supports small, egalitarian societies with limited social stratification, encouraging cooperation and sharing within the community, allowing for a more diverse diet (fruits, vegetables) and nutritional balance, and facilitating the development of localized knowledge (planting techniques) and practices (crop rotation)
  • Agriculture enables the rise of complex, hierarchical societies with specialized roles (farmers, artisans, priests), requires centralized management and decision-making, leads to the emergence of social classes (nobility, peasants) and inequality, supports the growth of urban centers (Uruk, Mohenjo-daro) and the development of writing systems (cuneiform, hieroglyphs), and allows for the accumulation of wealth (land ownership)
    • Involves selective breeding to improve crop characteristics and yield

Agriculture and Human Settlements

Agriculture's role in settlement development

  1. Surplus production: Agriculture generates food surpluses (grain stockpiles), allowing some individuals to engage in non-agricultural activities (pottery, metalworking), with surpluses being stored, traded (long-distance exchange), or used to support a growing population
  2. Population growth: Increased food production supports larger populations, leading to the development of villages (Çatalhöyük), towns (Jericho), and cities (Uruk)
  3. Specialization and division of labor: Agriculture allows for the emergence of specialized roles (weavers, scribes), leading to increased efficiency and technological advancements (bronze tools, the wheel)
  4. Trade and exchange: Agricultural surpluses facilitate trade between settlements, with trade networks (Silk Roads) encouraging the growth of markets and the exchange of goods (spices, textiles), ideas (religions), and technologies (ironworking)
  5. Political centralization: Agriculture supports the rise of centralized political authority, with elites emerging to manage agricultural production, distribution, and trade, leading to the development of early states (Egypt, Sumer) and empires (Akkadian, Roman)

Agricultural Advancements

  • Fertilization techniques to enhance soil fertility and improve crop yield
  • Development of agroecology practices to create sustainable farming systems
  • Implementation of crop rotation to maintain soil health and increase productivity

Key Terms to Review (23)

Silk Roads: The Silk Roads were a network of trade routes that connected the East and West for centuries, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultural influences between civilizations across Eurasia. This vast system of overland and maritime trade routes played a crucial role in shaping the history, economies, and societies of the regions it traversed.
Agriculture: Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants and raising livestock for food, fiber, and other products. It is a fundamental human activity that has shaped the development of civilizations and has profound impacts on the environment, economy, and society.
Horticulture: Horticulture is the science and art of cultivating and managing gardens, orchards, and nurseries. It encompasses the growing of fruits, vegetables, flowers, and ornamental plants for both commercial and personal purposes. Horticulture is a distinct field within the broader discipline of agriculture, focusing on the intensive production and care of high-value crops.
Domestication: Domestication is the process by which humans cultivate and breed wild plants and animals to serve their needs. It involves the genetic and behavioral modification of organisms to make them more useful and dependent on human care for survival. This term is central to understanding the development of various modes of subsistence, pastoralism, plant cultivation, and the complex relationships between humans and animals throughout history and in modern societies.
Uruk: Uruk was an ancient Sumerian city located in modern-day Iraq, known as one of the first major urban centers in human history. It was a key site for the development of early agriculture and the emergence of complex societies in Mesopotamia.
Hieroglyphs: Hieroglyphs are a system of writing that uses pictorial symbols to represent objects, ideas, or sounds. They were primarily used in ancient Egypt and were an important aspect of their culture and record-keeping.
Neolithic Period: The Neolithic period, also known as the New Stone Age, was a pivotal era in human history marked by the transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one centered around the cultivation of plants and the domestication of animals. This shift had a profound impact on the development of human societies, leading to the establishment of permanent settlements, the emergence of complex social structures, and the advancement of technology and tools.
Paleoethnobotanical: Paleoethnobotany is the study of ancient plant remains, such as seeds, pollen, and other botanical materials, in order to understand the relationship between humans and plants in the past. It is a subfield of archaeology that provides insights into past human behaviors, subsistence strategies, and environmental conditions.
Fertilization: Fertilization is the process by which the male and female gametes (sperm and egg) fuse to form a zygote, the first cell of a new organism. This critical event marks the beginning of sexual reproduction and is essential for the continuation of life in both plant and animal species.
Agricultural Revolution: The Agricultural Revolution refers to the significant changes in agricultural practices and productivity that occurred during the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly in Europe and North America. This transformation led to increased food production, population growth, and the transition from a primarily agrarian to an industrialized society.
Irrigation: Irrigation is the artificial application of water to land or soil to assist in the cultivation of crops and other plants. It is a fundamental practice in horticulture and agriculture, enabling the efficient and controlled distribution of water to meet the specific needs of plants.
Ethnobotanical: Ethnobotany is the scientific study of the relationships between people and plants, particularly how indigenous and local communities utilize and interact with the plants in their environment. The term 'ethnobotanical' refers to this interdisciplinary field that combines the study of botany, anthropology, and traditional ecological knowledge.
Green Revolution: The Green Revolution refers to the significant increase in agricultural productivity that occurred in the mid-20th century, driven by the development and widespread adoption of high-yielding crop varieties, the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, and the expansion of irrigation systems. This transformation had far-reaching impacts on global food production, cultural identity, and the challenges facing the world today.
Cuneiform: Cuneiform is an ancient writing system that originated in Mesopotamia, characterized by wedge-shaped characters impressed on clay tablets. This writing system was crucial for the development of record-keeping, administration, and early forms of agriculture in the region.
Crop Rotation: Crop rotation is an agricultural practice where different crops are grown in succession on the same land, rather than planting the same crop repeatedly. This technique helps maintain soil fertility, control pests and diseases, and improve overall crop yields.
Mohenjo-daro: Mohenjo-daro was an ancient Indus Valley Civilization city located in modern-day Pakistan, known for its advanced urban planning and sophisticated infrastructure. It was a prominent center of agriculture and trade during the Bronze Age, serving as a key example of the agricultural and horticultural practices of the time.
Jericho: Jericho is an ancient city located in the West Bank region of the Middle East, known for its significant role in the development of early agriculture and horticulture. As one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Jericho has been a crucial site for understanding the transition from hunter-gatherer societies to more settled, agricultural communities.
Çatalhöyük: Çatalhöyük was a large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement located in Anatolia, which is present-day Turkey. It is considered one of the earliest known urban settlements, dating back to around 7500-5700 BCE, and is renowned for its well-preserved architecture, art, and evidence of early agricultural practices.
Agroecology: Agroecology is an approach to agriculture that applies ecological concepts and principles to the design and management of sustainable food systems. It focuses on the interactions between various components of the agroecosystem, including plants, animals, soil, water, and climate, to create productive, resource-efficient, and environmentally-friendly farming practices.
Crop Yield: Crop yield refers to the measure of the amount of a particular agricultural crop harvested per unit of land area. It is a crucial metric in the field of horticulture and agriculture, as it directly impacts food production, economic viability, and sustainability of farming practices.
Selective Breeding: Selective breeding, also known as artificial selection, is the process of breeding plants and animals for specific desirable traits by having them reproduce to pass on those traits to their offspring. It is a fundamental technique used in both horticulture and agriculture to improve the characteristics of cultivated crops and domesticated livestock.
Soil Fertility: Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to support plant growth and development by providing the necessary nutrients, water, and other essential elements. It is a crucial factor in the context of plant cultivation, horticulture, and agriculture, as it directly impacts the productivity and sustainability of agricultural systems.
Monoculture: Monoculture refers to the agricultural practice of cultivating a single crop or plant species over a large area, often to the exclusion of other crops or plant varieties. This approach is commonly used in modern industrial agriculture and has significant implications for both plant cultivation and the globalization of food.