1.6 Cross-Cultural Comparison and Cultural Relativism

Cross-Cultural Comparison and Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism is a core principle in anthropology: it means understanding a culture's beliefs and practices on their own terms, within their own context. This approach helps anthropologists study other societies without letting their own biases get in the way. It stands in direct contrast to ethnocentrism, which judges other cultures by the standards of one's own.

Concept of Relativism in Anthropology

Relativism holds that beliefs, values, and practices should be understood and evaluated within their specific cultural context. There's no single, universal standard for judging whether a cultural practice is "right" or "wrong." Instead, anthropologists try to suspend judgment and ask why a practice exists and what purpose it serves for the people who follow it.

Why does this matter for anthropology?

• It leads to more objective, less biased research. For example, when studying the Inuit practice of sharing food communally, a relativistic approach asks how this practice helps communities survive in harsh Arctic environments rather than measuring it against Western norms of individual ownership.
• It helps anthropologists appreciate how different societies adapt to their environments and meet their needs in unique ways. The Maasai of East Africa, for instance, organize much of social life around cattle herding, which makes deep sense given their semi-arid grassland environment.
• It promotes genuine cross-cultural understanding and respect for diversity, which is foundational to the entire discipline.

Cultural Relativism vs. Ethnocentrism

These two concepts are essentially opposites, and understanding the contrast is key.

Cultural relativism evaluates beliefs and practices within their specific cultural context. It assumes no culture is inherently superior to another and that all cultures represent valid ways of organizing human life. When an anthropologist studies Amish communities, for example, a relativistic approach seeks to understand why they reject modern technology based on their own religious values and community goals.

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one's own culture as the standard and to judge other cultures against it. This often leads to seeing unfamiliar practices as "backward" or "wrong." Ethnocentrism has driven some of history's worst outcomes: European colonialism was fueled in large part by the belief that Western civilization was superior and that colonized peoples needed to be "civilized."

Application of Relativistic Thinking

Practicing cultural relativism isn't automatic. It takes deliberate effort. Here's how anthropologists apply it:

1. Identify your own biases. Before studying another culture, recognize the assumptions you carry from your own upbringing and society.
2. Suspend judgment. Rather than labeling a practice as good or bad, focus on describing and understanding it.
3. Consider context. Ask what historical, environmental, economic, and social factors shaped this practice.

This approach applies across many social issues:

• Marriage practices: Different societies practice monogamy, polygamy, or arranged marriages. Arranged marriages, for instance, often serve important economic and kinship functions in the cultures where they occur. A relativistic approach examines those functions rather than judging the practice by Western ideals of romantic love.
• Gender roles: Gender expectations vary widely. Some societies are matrilineal (tracing descent through the mother's line), and many hunter-gatherer groups are notably gender-egalitarian. Relativistic thinking examines how these roles function within each society rather than assuming one arrangement is "natural."
• Religious beliefs: The world contains enormous religious diversity, from animism (the belief that natural objects have spirits) to monotheism to polytheism. Understanding why a community practices ancestor veneration, for example, requires looking at it within that culture's worldview rather than evaluating it against your own religious or secular standards.

Cultural Adaptation and Diversity

Cultural adaptation refers to how societies adjust their practices, beliefs, and social structures to suit their environment and circumstances. A fishing community on a Pacific island will develop very different food practices, spiritual beliefs, and social organization than a farming community in West Africa, because they face different challenges and resources.

Cultural diversity is the wide range of norms and practices that result from these different adaptations. By studying this diversity through a relativistic lens, anthropologists can identify both what's unique to particular societies and what patterns appear across many cultures. That balance between the particular and the universal is at the heart of cross-cultural comparison.