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Intro to Anthropology
Table of Contents
Unit 2 Overview: Cultural and Archaeological Methods
2.1 Archaeological Research Methods
2.2 Conservation and Naturalism
2.3 Ethnography and Ethnology
2.4 Participant Observation and Interviewing
2.5 Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis
2.6 Collections

Archaeological research methods are crucial for uncovering and understanding our past. From surveying and excavation to dating techniques, these methods help archaeologists piece together human history. They reveal hidden stories buried beneath our feet.

Careful documentation and context are key in archaeology. Researchers use various tools and techniques to record findings accurately. This meticulous approach ensures that valuable information about our ancestors and their ways of life isn't lost during excavation.

Archaeological Research Methods

Archaeological excavation techniques

  • Surveying and mapping employ various methods to locate and document archaeological sites
    • Aerial photography and satellite imagery provide overviews of the landscape to identify potential sites (earthworks, crop marks)
    • Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) uses electromagnetic waves to detect subsurface features (buried walls, foundations)
    • Magnetometry measures magnetic anomalies in the soil to identify archaeological features (hearths, kilns)
    • Resistivity surveys measure electrical resistance in the soil to detect buried features (ditches, pits)
  • Excavation techniques involve the systematic removal of soil and sediments to uncover and document archaeological remains
    • Stratigraphic excavation removes layers of soil in reverse chronological order, carefully documenting each layer to understand site formation processes (archaeological site formation processes)
    • Arbitrary levels involve excavating in predetermined increments (10 cm levels) when natural strata are not visible, providing a controlled method for recovering artifacts
    • Feature excavation focuses on specific archaeological features (hearths, pits), allowing for detailed investigation of discrete contexts
    • Screening and sieving pass excavated soil through mesh screens to recover small artifacts (beads, seeds) that may be missed during excavation

Context and documentation in archaeology

  • Context refers to the relationship between artifacts and their surroundings, crucial for understanding an artifact's function, age, and cultural significance
    • Provenience is the precise location of an artifact within the site (unit, level, feature)
    • Association is the relationship between artifacts found together, providing insights into past human activities (tool kits, ritual deposits)
  • Field documentation methods ensure that the context and provenience of artifacts are accurately recorded
    • Photographs record the site, features, and artifacts in situ, providing visual documentation of the excavation process
    • Drawings and sketches include plan views (horizontal) and profiles (vertical) of excavation units and features, capturing spatial relationships and stratigraphy
    • Field notes are detailed written descriptions of the site, excavation process, and findings, serving as a primary record of the archaeological investigation
    • Artifact labeling and bagging assign unique identification numbers to artifacts and store them in labeled bags with provenience information, ensuring that the context is maintained throughout analysis and curation

Law of superposition for site interpretation

  • The law of superposition states that in undisturbed stratigraphic sequences, older layers are found below younger layers
    • This principle helps establish the relative chronology of archaeological sites, with deeper layers generally representing earlier periods
  • Interpreting stratigraphic sequences involves identifying natural and cultural layers and recognizing disturbances that may disrupt the sequence
    • Natural layers result from geological processes (soil formation, sediment deposition) and can provide environmental context for the site
    • Cultural layers are created by human activities (occupation surfaces, fill episodes) and contain artifacts and features
    • Disturbances such as intrusions (pits, burrows) and erosion can alter the original stratigraphic sequence and must be accounted for in site interpretation
  • The Harris Matrix is a diagram that represents the stratigraphic relationships between archaeological contexts
    • It uses lines and boxes to show which layers are above, below, or contemporaneous with others
    • The Harris Matrix helps visualize the site's formation processes and chronology, aiding in the interpretation of complex stratigraphic sequences

Relative dating methods in archaeology

  • Stratigraphy uses the law of superposition to establish relative chronology, with artifacts in lower layers being older than those in upper layers
    • It is the most basic and widely used relative dating method in archaeology
  • Seriation arranges artifacts in chronological order based on changes in style or frequency over time
    • It assumes that certain artifact types or styles were more popular during specific periods (ceramic styles, projectile point types)
    • Frequency seriation relies on the relative abundance of artifact types, while contextual seriation considers the presence or absence of types in specific contexts
  • Typology classifies artifacts based on shared physical characteristics (shape, size, decoration) and assumes that artifact types evolved over time
    • By studying the morphological changes in artifact types, archaeologists can establish relative chronologies (projectile point sequences)
    • Typologies are often regional and time-specific, requiring a good understanding of the local archaeological record
  • Cross-dating uses artifacts or features with known dates to establish the age of associated contexts
    • Diagnostic artifacts such as coins, inscriptions, or imported goods from well-dated contexts can provide a terminus post quem (date after which) for the associated layer or feature
    • Radiocarbon dates from organic materials can also be used to cross-date associated contexts

Absolute dating techniques for artifacts

  • Radiocarbon ($^{14}$C) dating measures the decay of radioactive carbon isotopes in organic materials
    • It is effective for dating materials up to ~50,000 years old (wood, charcoal, bone)
    • The method requires calibration to account for atmospheric $^{14}$C variability caused by factors such as solar activity and ocean circulation
  • Potassium-argon (K-Ar) and argon-argon (Ar-Ar) dating measure the decay of potassium-40 to argon-40 in volcanic rocks
    • These methods are effective for dating materials older than ~100,000 years and are useful for dating volcanic ash layers associated with archaeological sites (Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania)
  • Thermoluminescence (TL) dating measures the accumulated radiation dose in crystalline materials (ceramics, burnt stone)
    • It is effective for dating materials up to ~500,000 years old
    • The method requires knowledge of the material's burial environment and radiation exposure to calculate the age
  • Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating measures the accumulated radiation dose in sediments (quartz, feldspar)
    • It is effective for dating materials up to ~200,000 years old and is useful for dating the burial age of sediments associated with archaeological remains (dunes, alluvial deposits)
    • Like TL dating, OSL requires an understanding of the sediment's burial history and environmental conditions

Post-excavation analysis and conservation

  • Archaeometry applies scientific techniques to analyze archaeological materials, providing insights into their composition, origin, and production methods
    • Chemical analysis can determine the elemental composition of artifacts, aiding in sourcing studies and understanding ancient technologies
    • Microscopic analysis examines the microstructure of materials, revealing details about manufacturing processes and use-wear patterns
  • Artifact conservation involves stabilizing and preserving archaeological materials to prevent further degradation
    • Conservation treatments are tailored to specific material types (metals, ceramics, organic materials) and their condition
    • Proper storage and environmental control are essential for long-term preservation of artifacts
  • Taphonomy studies the processes that affect organic remains after death, including decomposition, fossilization, and site formation processes
    • Understanding taphonomic processes helps archaeologists interpret faunal remains and human burials more accurately
  • Cultural resource management integrates archaeological research with legal and ethical considerations for protecting and managing archaeological sites
    • It involves balancing the needs of development with the preservation of cultural heritage
    • CRM archaeologists often work on compliance projects related to federal and state regulations

Key Terms to Review (30)

Excavation: Excavation is the systematic and scientific process of uncovering and studying archaeological sites, artifacts, and other cultural remains buried beneath the Earth's surface. It is a fundamental method employed by archaeologists to gather primary data and gain insights into past human societies and their ways of life.
Sieving: Sieving is a technique used in archaeological research methods to separate and sort materials of different sizes and compositions. It is a crucial step in the excavation and analysis of archaeological sites, as it allows researchers to systematically recover and examine the various artifacts, ecofacts, and other remains found at a site.
Association: Association refers to the relationship or connection between different elements, concepts, or phenomena observed in archaeological research. It is a fundamental concept in the field of archaeology that helps researchers understand the patterns and connections within the archaeological record.
Ground-penetrating radar: Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical technique that uses high-frequency radio waves to image the subsurface of the Earth. It is a non-invasive method that allows archaeologists to detect and map buried structures, features, and artifacts without the need for extensive excavation.
Stratigraphy: Stratigraphy is the study of the layers or strata of soil, sediment, and rock that have accumulated over time, providing a chronological record of past events, environments, and human activities. It is a fundamental technique in archaeology used to understand the sequence and context of archaeological deposits.
Cross-dating: Cross-dating is a technique used in archaeology to determine the age of an artifact or site by comparing its characteristics with those of other artifacts or sites whose ages are already known. This method helps establish a relative chronology and provides insights into the cultural and temporal relationships between different archaeological contexts.
Argon-Argon Dating: Argon-argon dating is a radiometric dating method used in archaeology and geology to determine the age of rocks and minerals by measuring the decay of radioactive isotopes of argon. This technique is particularly useful for dating volcanic rocks and minerals that contain potassium, as it relies on the radioactive decay of potassium-40 to argon-40.
Artifact Conservation: Artifact conservation is the process of preserving and protecting archaeological objects and materials to prevent their deterioration and ensure their long-term preservation. It is a crucial aspect of archaeological research methods, as it allows researchers to study and analyze artifacts in their original state, providing valuable insights into past cultures and civilizations. Artifact conservation involves a range of techniques and strategies aimed at stabilizing, cleaning, and storing artifacts in a way that minimizes further damage or loss of information. This includes the use of specialized materials, controlled environments, and scientific analysis to understand the composition and condition of the artifacts.
Surveying: Surveying is the process of measuring and mapping the physical features of a specific area or location, typically using specialized instruments and techniques. It is a fundamental aspect of archaeological research methods, providing critical data and information about the landscape, terrain, and spatial distribution of artifacts and other archaeological remains.
Arbitrary Levels: Arbitrary levels refer to the practice in archaeology of dividing excavation sites into predetermined, standardized units or layers, regardless of the actual cultural or natural stratigraphy present. This approach allows for systematic data collection and analysis, but may not accurately reflect the true depositional history of a site.
Harris Matrix: The Harris Matrix is a stratigraphic tool used in archaeology to visually represent the chronological relationships between different layers or contexts within an excavation site. It provides a graphical representation of the relative temporal sequence of archaeological deposits and features.
Typology: Typology is a classification system used in archaeology to organize and analyze artifacts, features, and other material remains. It involves the systematic identification and grouping of objects based on their shared characteristics, allowing archaeologists to better understand past human behavior and cultural patterns.
Law of Superposition: The law of superposition is a fundamental principle in archaeology and geology that states that in an undeformed sequence of layered or stratified rocks, the older layers will be found at the bottom and the younger layers will be found at the top. This principle is used to determine the relative age of archaeological and geological features based on their position within the stratigraphic sequence.
Radiocarbon Dating: Radiocarbon dating is a scientific method used to determine the age of organic materials by measuring the amount of carbon-14 (a radioactive isotope of carbon) they contain. It is a crucial technique in the field of archaeology, allowing researchers to establish the chronology of ancient civilizations and artifacts.
Cultural Resource Management: Cultural Resource Management (CRM) is the practice of managing and preserving cultural resources, which include archaeological sites, historic buildings, artifacts, and other tangible and intangible elements that are significant to a particular culture or community. CRM plays a crucial role in the context of archaeological research methods, as it helps to ensure the protection and responsible use of these valuable cultural resources.
Taphonomy: Taphonomy is the study of the processes that affect organic remains after death, including the burial, decomposition, and preservation of organisms. It is a critical aspect of archaeological research methods, providing insights into how the archaeological record is formed and transformed over time.
Thermoluminescence Dating: Thermoluminescence dating is a technique used in archaeology and geology to determine the age of materials that have been exposed to heat or radiation. It measures the amount of energy stored in the crystalline structure of certain minerals, which can be used to calculate the time elapsed since the material was last heated or exposed to radiation. This technique is particularly useful for dating archaeological artifacts, such as pottery, bricks, and ceramics, as well as geological samples like burnt flints and heated rocks.
Resistivity Surveys: Resistivity surveys are a geophysical exploration technique used in archaeology to detect and map subsurface features and structures by measuring the electrical resistance of the soil or rock. This method relies on the principle that different materials have varying degrees of electrical conductivity, allowing archaeologists to identify buried artifacts, features, and anomalies that may indicate the presence of archaeological sites.
Potassium-Argon Dating: Potassium-argon dating is a radiometric dating technique used to determine the age of rocks and minerals by measuring the ratio of the radioactive isotope of potassium (40K) to its decay product, the stable isotope of argon (40Ar). This method is particularly useful for dating igneous and metamorphic rocks that are millions of years old.
Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating: Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating is a technique used in archaeology and environmental sciences to determine the age of sediments and materials by measuring the amount of light energy they have absorbed since they were last exposed to sunlight. This method relies on the principle that certain minerals, such as quartz and feldspar, can store energy from ionizing radiation in their crystal structure, which is then released as light when the material is exposed to light or heat.
Mapping: Mapping is the process of visually representing spatial data and relationships on a two-dimensional surface, such as a map or diagram. It involves the systematic collection, organization, and presentation of geographic information to convey patterns, trends, and connections within a specific area or context.
Archaeological Site Formation Processes: Archaeological site formation processes refer to the complex set of natural and cultural factors that shape the creation, preservation, and transformation of archaeological sites over time. These processes determine what evidence of past human activities and behaviors is ultimately preserved in the archaeological record.
Archaeometry: Archaeometry is the application of scientific techniques and methods to the study of archaeological materials and artifacts. It involves the use of various analytical and quantitative approaches to gain a better understanding of the past through the examination of physical evidence.
Screening: Screening is a methodological approach in archaeology that involves the systematic examination and separation of archaeological materials, such as soil, sediments, or artifacts, through the use of screens or sieves. This process helps researchers identify and recover smaller or more fragile objects that may have been overlooked during the initial excavation or recovery process.
In situ: The term 'in situ' refers to the study or analysis of an object or material in its original or natural position or location, without being moved or disturbed from its context. This is a crucial concept in the field of archaeological research methods, as it allows researchers to understand the spatial relationships and contextual information surrounding the artifacts and features they discover.
Seriation: Seriation is a relative dating technique used in archaeology to order artifacts or sites in a chronological sequence based on the analysis of their stylistic or technological changes over time. It involves arranging objects or sites into a temporal order without the need for absolute dating methods.
Provenience: Provenience refers to the precise location or context in which an artifact, feature, or ecofact is found during archaeological excavation. Understanding provenience is crucial for archaeologists as it provides vital information about the relationship of the item to its surrounding environment and other artifacts, which helps in interpreting cultural and historical significance.
Stratigraphic excavation: Stratigraphic excavation is a method in archaeology that involves digging and analyzing layers of soil and artifacts to understand the chronological sequence of human activity at a site. By examining these distinct layers, or strata, archaeologists can establish a timeline of events and cultural changes over time, revealing insights into past societies. This technique emphasizes the importance of context in archaeological finds, allowing researchers to connect artifacts to specific time periods and cultural practices.
Feature excavation: Feature excavation is a method used in archaeology to investigate specific non-portable elements of a site, such as hearths, postholes, or pits. This technique focuses on uncovering and analyzing these features to gather information about past human activities and the spatial organization of a site. By carefully documenting the context and stratigraphy of these features, archaeologists can piece together insights into the cultural practices and environmental interactions of historical populations.
Magnetometry: Magnetometry is a non-invasive archaeological survey technique that measures the magnetic field variations in the soil, often caused by human activities or buried structures. This method helps archaeologists identify and map archaeological features without disturbing the site, making it an essential tool for understanding past human behaviors and settlement patterns.