10.1 German Expansionism and the Anschluss

Anschluss: Causes and Context

German expansionism and the Anschluss marked a crucial turning point in pre-World War II Europe. Hitler's aggressive moves to unite German-speaking peoples under Nazi rule shattered post-WWI treaties and exposed the weaknesses of Western appeasement policies.

The annexation of Austria in March 1938 showcased Nazi propaganda tactics and ideological justifications for territorial expansion. It shifted the balance of power in Europe, heightened tensions across the continent, and forced other nations to reassess their strategies in the face of growing German aggression.

Post-World War I Treaties and Economic Factors

Two treaties set the stage for the Anschluss by explicitly prohibiting a Germany-Austria union. The Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed this restriction on Germany, while the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) imposed it on Austria. Rather than settling the question permanently, these prohibitions created deep resentment and fueled pan-German nationalism in both countries. Revisionist politicians on both sides of the border argued that the treaties were illegitimate impositions by the victorious Allies.

The Great Depression made things far worse. Austria's economy was hit hard throughout the early 1930s:

• Unemployment peaked at roughly 25% in 1933
• Austrian banks collapsed, most notably the Creditanstalt failure in 1931, which sent shockwaves across European finance
• Economic desperation made many Austrians receptive to German promises of recovery through unification

Against this backdrop, the concept of Großdeutschland (Greater Germany) gained real traction. The idea was to unite all German-speaking peoples under one state, and it resonated strongly with populations who felt economically abandoned and politically humiliated by the postwar order.

Political Instability and Nazi Influence in Austria

Austria's internal politics were deeply unstable throughout the 1930s, creating an opening for German intervention. Democratic institutions eroded rapidly after Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss dissolved parliament in March 1933 and established an authoritarian, corporatist regime (the "Fatherland Front"). Pro-Nazi sentiment grew among segments of the Austrian population, particularly in rural areas and among younger voters.

In July 1934, Austrian Nazis attempted a coup and assassinated Dollfuss. The coup itself failed, partly because Mussolini's Italy mobilized troops on the Austrian border as a warning to Hitler. But the assassination further destabilized Austria's political landscape and demonstrated how deeply Nazi networks had penetrated the country.

Dollfuss's successor, Kurt Schuschnigg, tried to preserve Austrian independence but found himself in an increasingly impossible position. He attempted to appease Hitler through concessions while suppressing the Austrian Nazi Party domestically. Neither approach worked. By 1938, Nazi influence within Austria had grown too strong for Schuschnigg to contain.

Hitler's Strategic Pressure on Austria

Hitler used a combination of diplomatic pressure, economic coercion, and military threats to force Austria's hand:

1. Diplomatic pressure: At the Berchtesgaden meeting in February 1938, Hitler personally bullied Schuschnigg into appointing the Nazi sympathizer Arthur Seyss-Inquart as Minister of the Interior, giving Nazis control over Austria's police forces.
2. Economic coercion: Germany imposed trade restrictions on Austria while simultaneously promising economic benefits upon unification, including access to the larger German market.
3. Military intimidation: When Schuschnigg announced a snap plebiscite on Austrian independence (scheduled for March 13, 1938), Hitler mobilized German troops along the border and demanded Schuschnigg's resignation.

Schuschnigg resigned on March 11. Seyss-Inquart, now acting as chancellor, immediately invited German troops into Austria. On March 12, 1938, the Wehrmacht crossed the border unopposed. Hitler himself entered Austria to cheering crowds in Linz, his childhood city. A Nazi-controlled plebiscite held on April 10 reported 99.7% approval for unification, though the vote was conducted under conditions of intimidation and was neither free nor fair.

International Response to the Anschluss

Western Powers' Appeasement and Inaction

Britain and France were committed to appeasement, the policy of making concessions to Hitler in hopes of avoiding another European war. Neither took decisive action against the Anschluss.

• Britain under Neville Chamberlain viewed the union as a matter of self-determination for German-speaking peoples and declined to intervene
• France was in the middle of a governmental crisis (the cabinet fell just days before the Anschluss) and was in no position to act alone
• The League of Nations proved unable to respond, highlighting its lack of enforcement mechanisms for collective security
• The Soviet Union proposed collective security measures against German expansionism, but Western distrust of Soviet motives limited cooperation

Notably, Mussolini's Italy, which had blocked Hitler's ambitions toward Austria in 1934, now acquiesced. The Rome-Berlin Axis, formalized in 1936, meant Italy was no longer willing to oppose German moves in Central Europe.

Impact on European Balance of Power

The Anschluss had immediate strategic consequences. Germany absorbed Austria's resources, including significant iron ore deposits and hydroelectric capacity, and gained a stronger position in Central Europe.

Neighboring countries felt the shift right away:

• Czechoslovakia was now surrounded on three sides by German territory, making it the obvious next target (which it became within months at the Munich Conference)
• Hungary and Yugoslavia reassessed their strategic positions in light of the new German presence on their borders

European nations accelerated military preparations in response:

• Britain expanded the RAF and modernized its navy
• France reinforced the Maginot Line and increased military spending
• Smaller states began calculating whether to align with Germany or seek protection from the Western powers

Changing Perceptions of Nazi Germany

The Anschluss forced a broader reckoning with Hitler's intentions. Before March 1938, many Western leaders could still argue that Hitler's demands were limited to reversing the "injustices" of Versailles. After the Anschluss, that argument became harder to sustain.

• The annexation was a clear violation of both the Versailles and Saint-Germain treaties
• Concerns about future German territorial ambitions intensified, particularly regarding Czechoslovakia's Sudetenland
• Public opinion in democratic countries shifted toward supporting a stronger stance against German expansionism, though full commitment to confrontation wouldn't come until after Munich

Some countries began reassessing their diplomatic strategies, moving from pure appeasement toward more cautious approaches. The urgency of forming alliances to counter German power grew, though meaningful collective action remained elusive until war actually broke out in September 1939.

Nazi Propaganda and Expansionism

Ideological Justifications for Territorial Expansion

Nazi ideology provided a ready-made framework for justifying the Anschluss and further expansion. Two concepts were central:

• Lebensraum ("living space"): The idea that the German people needed more territory to thrive. Hitler outlined this in Mein Kampf (1925), linking territorial expansion to racial survival and historical destiny.
• Volksgemeinschaft ("people's community"): The belief that all ethnic Germans belonged in a single state, regardless of existing national borders.

Nazi racial theories cast the unification of Germany and Austria as a natural correction of an artificial separation. Propagandists emphasized shared language, culture, and historical connections stretching back to the Holy Roman Empire. The Anschluss was presented not as conquest but as the reunification of one people.

Manipulation of Mass Media and Public Opinion

The Nazi regime was highly skilled at controlling information and manufacturing consent. Key tools included:

• Radio: The Volksempfänger ("people's receiver") program made radios affordable and widespread, allowing Nazi broadcasts to reach millions of households in both Germany and Austria
• Press: The Reich Press Chamber controlled newspaper content, ensuring uniformly favorable coverage of Nazi policies
• Film: Propaganda films like Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will (1935) projected images of German strength and unity

In Austria specifically, the Nazis orchestrated mass rallies before and after the annexation to create the appearance of overwhelming popular support. The April 1938 plebiscite, with its reported 99.7% approval, was the culmination of this strategy. Economic promises also played a role: Nazi propaganda emphasized Germany's recovery from the Depression (driven largely by rearmament spending) as proof of what unification could deliver for struggling Austrians.

Demonization of Opponents and Exploitation of Grievances

Nazi propaganda worked by channeling real grievances toward scapegoats. The Versailles Treaty's perceived injustices provided fertile ground: propagandists portrayed the postwar settlement as a deliberate attempt to weaken and humiliate the German people, rallying support for revisionist policies.

Political opponents and minority groups were systematically demonized:

• Jews were portrayed as obstacles to German unity and prosperity. Anti-Semitic propaganda blamed supposed Jewish influence for Austria's economic troubles and presented the Anschluss as liberation from a "Jewish-controlled" government.
• Socialists and democrats were labeled as threats to national strength, their internationalism cast as betrayal of the German people.

Within days of the Anschluss, the persecution of Austrian Jews began in earnest. Public humiliations, property seizures, and forced emigration followed immediately, demonstrating that Nazi expansionism and Nazi racial policy were inseparable.