💣european history – 1890 to 1945 review
12.4 Resistance, Rescue, and the Role of Collaborators
Last Updated on August 1, 2024
The Holocaust saw varied responses from Jews and non-Jews alike. Some Jews resisted through armed uprisings, cultural preservation, and spiritual defiance. Others found ways to rescue and hide their fellow Jews, risking their own lives in the process.
Collaboration with Nazi policies was widespread, ranging from active participation to passive compliance. Motivations varied from ideological alignment to self-preservation. The actions of collaborators and bystanders continue to spark debates about moral responsibility during times of crisis.
Jewish Resistance during the Holocaust
Armed Resistance and Uprisings
Top images from around the web for Armed Resistance and Uprisings
Warsaw Uprising - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Warsaw Uprising - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Warsaw Uprising - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Warsaw Uprising - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Warsaw Uprising - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
Top images from around the web for Armed Resistance and Uprisings
Warsaw Uprising - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Warsaw Uprising - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Warsaw Uprising - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Warsaw Uprising - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
Warsaw Uprising - Wikipedia View original
Is this image relevant?
1 of 3
- Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943 stood as the largest Jewish armed resistance during World War II
- Lasted nearly a month against overwhelming Nazi forces
- Inspired other ghettos and camps to resist
- Partisan groups formed armed resistance units in forests
- Bielski brothers in Belarus engaged in guerrilla warfare
- Rescued fellow Jews and created hidden communities
- Sonderkommando revolt at Auschwitz-Birkenau in October 1944 demonstrated resistance in death camps
- Prisoners destroyed a crematorium and killed several SS guards
- Showed determination to fight even in the most extreme circumstances
Spiritual and Cultural Resistance
- Maintaining religious and cultural practices defied Nazi attempts to dehumanize Jews
- Secret prayer services held in ghettos and camps
- Celebration of holidays (Passover, Hanukkah) continued despite prohibitions
- Education and documentation efforts preserved Jewish culture and history
- Oneg Shabbat archive in Warsaw Ghetto recorded daily life and Nazi atrocities
- Underground schools taught Jewish children their heritage and identity
- Art and music created in ghettos and camps served as forms of resistance
- Terezín (Theresienstadt) produced operas and concerts
- Visual artists like Felix Nussbaum created works depicting their experiences
Challenges and Youth Movements
- Resistance movements faced numerous obstacles in their efforts
- Limited resources and lack of weapons hindered armed resistance
- Isolation from potential allies made coordination difficult
- Severe reprisals against resisters and their communities deterred action
- Youth movements played a crucial role in resistance efforts
- Organized underground networks for communication and smuggling
- Educated young people about their heritage and identity
- Participated in armed resistance (Hashomer Hatzair in Warsaw Ghetto Uprising)
- Escape attempts and sabotage actions challenged Nazi control
- Sobibór death camp uprising led to the camp's closure
- Treblinka revolt destroyed camp facilities and allowed some prisoners to escape
Rescue Efforts during the Holocaust
Individual Rescuers and Organizations
- Righteous Among the Nations honors non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews
- Over 27,000 individuals recognized by Yad Vashem to date
- Rescuers came from diverse backgrounds (farmers, teachers, diplomats)
- Diplomatic rescuers used their positions to save thousands
- Raoul Wallenberg issued protective passports in Hungary
- Chiune Sugihara provided transit visas in Lithuania
- Underground networks operated across occupied Europe
- Dutch resistance hid Jews and provided false documents
- French Œuvre de Secours aux Enfants (OSE) smuggled children to safety
- Religious institutions played a significant role in hiding Jews
- Convents and monasteries sheltered Jewish children
- Le Chambon-sur-Lignon, a Protestant village in France, saved thousands of Jews
Large-Scale Rescue Operations
- Rescue of Danish Jews in 1943 exemplified a nationwide effort
- Nearly entire Jewish population of Denmark transported to neutral Sweden
- Danish resistance, civilians, and fishermen coordinated the operation
- Kindertransport rescued approximately 10,000 Jewish children
- Brought children from Nazi-occupied territories to the United Kingdom
- Operated from 1938 to 1940, saving children from Germany, Austria, and Czechoslovakia
- Swiss diplomat Carl Lutz saved tens of thousands of Hungarian Jews
- Issued protective letters and established safe houses in Budapest
- Worked with Zionist youth movements to organize rescue efforts
Risks and Motivations of Rescuers
- Rescuers faced severe penalties if caught by Nazi authorities
- Imprisonment, torture, and execution threatened those who helped Jews
- Reprisals against families and communities of rescuers were common
- Motivations for rescue varied among individuals and groups
- Moral conviction and sense of human decency drove many rescuers
- Religious beliefs (Christian, Muslim) inspired some to act
- Political ideology (anti-fascism, socialism) motivated others
- Personal relationships with Jewish individuals or communities prompted action
- Long-term psychological effects on rescuers and rescued
- Many rescuers remained humble about their actions
- Relationships between rescuers and those they saved often lasted lifetimes
Collaborators and Bystanders in Nazi-Occupied Territories
Forms and Motivations of Collaboration
- Collaboration ranged from active participation to passive compliance
- Ideological alignment with Nazi beliefs (anti-Semitism, fascism)
- Self-preservation and fear of reprisals drove some to cooperate
- Opportunism and personal gain motivated others
- Local police forces and administrative bodies implemented Nazi policies
- Identification and deportation of Jews often carried out by local authorities
- Examples include French Milice and Dutch auxiliary police
- Economic collaboration had widespread and lasting consequences
- Businesses profited from Nazi policies (use of slave labor, confiscation of Jewish property)
- Individuals acquired Jewish property through "Aryanization" programs
- Cultural collaboration promoted Nazi ideology
- Artists, writers, and intellectuals produced propaganda
- Educational institutions implemented Nazi curricula
Bystander Behavior and Influencing Factors
- "Bystander effect" explains inaction of many during the Holocaust
- Diffusion of responsibility led to lack of intervention
- Social pressure to conform discouraged individual action
- Factors influencing bystander behavior varied
- Fear of reprisals against oneself or family members
- Existing anti-Semitism or indifference to the plight of Jews
- Gradual nature of Nazi persecution normalized discriminatory practices
- Role of neutral countries raised ethical questions
- Switzerland's banking policies benefited from looted Nazi gold
- Sweden's trade relations with Nazi Germany continued throughout the war
Post-War Reckonings and Legacy
- Trials and purges addressed collaboration after the war
- Nuremberg Trials prosecuted major Nazi war criminals
- National courts tried local collaborators (French purges, Dutch trials)
- Debates over the nature and extent of collaboration continue
- Historiographical discussions on "ordinary men" vs. "willing executioners"
- Reassessment of national myths of resistance (France, Netherlands)
- Long-term impacts on collective memory and national identity
- Ongoing struggles with acknowledging past collaboration
- Memorialization efforts and education programs address complex history
- Lessons for contemporary society regarding moral choices and civic responsibility
- Study of Holocaust collaboration informs discussions on genocide prevention
- Emphasis on individual agency and the importance of standing up to injustice
Key Terms to Review (24)
Collective memory: Collective memory refers to the shared pool of knowledge and information that is held by a group, community, or society, shaping their identity and understanding of the past. This concept plays a crucial role in how groups remember significant events, fostering a sense of belonging and continuity while also influencing perspectives on historical narratives and trauma.
Moral Ambiguity: Moral ambiguity refers to situations where the rightness or wrongness of actions is unclear, often due to conflicting moral principles or ethical dilemmas. This concept is crucial in understanding the complex decisions faced by individuals and groups during times of crisis, especially when actions taken can be interpreted in multiple ways, leading to debate over whether those choices were justifiable.
Nuremberg Trials: The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals held after World War II to prosecute prominent leaders of Nazi Germany for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. These trials set important precedents for international law and justice, highlighting the role of individuals in upholding human rights during times of conflict and shedding light on the actions of collaborators and resistors during the war.
Bystander Effect: The bystander effect refers to a social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when other people are present. This effect illustrates how the presence of others can lead to a diffusion of responsibility, causing individuals to feel less compelled to take action. This concept is particularly relevant in discussions about resistance, rescue efforts, and the role of collaborators during crises, as it highlights the complex dynamics of group behavior in situations where moral choices must be made.
French Milice: The French Milice was a paramilitary organization established in 1943 during World War II, which collaborated with Nazi Germany in occupied France. This group was composed mainly of French volunteers who supported the Vichy regime's efforts to suppress resistance movements and enforce Nazi policies, often through violent means. Their actions directly linked them to the broader themes of collaboration and resistance during this tumultuous period.
Economic collaboration: Economic collaboration refers to the cooperative efforts between different countries, organizations, or groups to manage resources, trade, and economic policies for mutual benefit. In the context of resistance, rescue, and the role of collaborators during the tumultuous years leading up to and during World War II, economic collaboration often involved complex relationships between occupiers and the occupied, where individuals or governments worked together for survival or gain under oppressive regimes.
Carl Lutz: Carl Lutz was a Swiss diplomat in Budapest during World War II, renowned for his courageous efforts to save thousands of Jews from the Holocaust. By issuing protective letters and establishing safe houses, he played a crucial role in the rescue operations amidst the widespread atrocities occurring during the Nazi regime. Lutz's actions exemplify both individual bravery and the impact of diplomatic intervention in humanitarian crises.
Kindertransport: The kindertransport was a rescue effort that took place before World War II, aimed at transporting Jewish children from Nazi-occupied territories to safety in Britain. This initiative, which started in December 1938, allowed approximately 10,000 Jewish children to escape imminent danger, highlighting both the desperation of the times and the efforts made by individuals and organizations to save lives in the face of widespread persecution.
Chiune Sugihara: Chiune Sugihara was a Japanese diplomat who served as the vice-consul in Lithuania during World War II, known for his courageous act of issuing visas to thousands of Jewish refugees fleeing the Holocaust. His actions directly contributed to the rescue of around 6,000 Jews, showcasing the potential for individual resistance against oppressive regimes and highlighting the role of collaborators who defied their governments to save lives.
œuvre de secours aux enfants: L'œuvre de secours aux enfants (OSE) was a humanitarian organization established in France in 1912, initially focused on assisting Jewish children fleeing persecution. During World War II, it played a crucial role in rescuing and protecting Jewish children from the Nazi regime, showcasing the importance of organized resistance and rescue efforts amidst widespread collaboration and betrayal.
Le chambon-sur-lignon: Le Chambon-sur-Lignon is a small village in France that became famous during World War II for its extraordinary efforts in sheltering and saving Jewish refugees from the Holocaust. The village's residents, motivated by their Protestant faith and strong moral convictions, collaborated to provide safety and resources to those fleeing persecution, illustrating a remarkable example of resistance against the Nazi regime.
Sobibór uprising: The Sobibór Uprising was a revolt by Jewish prisoners at the Sobibór extermination camp in Poland on October 14, 1943, aimed at escaping the camp and resisting Nazi extermination efforts. This significant act of resistance highlighted the desperate struggle for survival among Jewish prisoners and underscored the broader theme of resistance against the Holocaust, demonstrating both the bravery and determination of those who fought back against their oppressors.
Treblinka Revolt: The Treblinka Revolt was a significant uprising that took place on August 2, 1943, at the Treblinka extermination camp in occupied Poland, where Jewish prisoners staged a rebellion against their captors. This act of resistance was crucial as it symbolized the desperate fight for survival and dignity against the atrocities of the Holocaust. The revolt not only demonstrated the courage of the individuals involved but also highlighted the broader struggle of Jews to resist oppression and seek freedom amidst extreme adversity.
Raoul Wallenberg: Raoul Wallenberg was a Swedish diplomat who is best known for his heroic efforts to save thousands of Jews during the Holocaust in Hungary. Using his status and resources, he issued protective passports and set up safe houses, ultimately saving an estimated 100,000 Jewish lives. His actions represent the spirit of resistance and humanitarian rescue during one of history's darkest periods.
Righteous Among the Nations: Righteous Among the Nations is an honorific title awarded by the State of Israel to non-Jews who risked their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust. This term highlights the courageous acts of individuals who defied Nazi persecution and oppression, showcasing the moral choices made amidst widespread complicity and collaboration. The recognition of these individuals serves to remember and honor those who acted with humanity in a time of unimaginable brutality.
Sonderkommando revolt: The sonderkommando revolt refers to the uprising by Jewish prisoners, specifically those forced to work in extermination camps, against their captors during the Holocaust, particularly at Auschwitz in October 1944. This act of resistance highlighted the desperate struggle for dignity and life in the face of overwhelming oppression and contributed to the broader narrative of resistance within Nazi-occupied Europe.
Hashomer Hatzair: Hashomer Hatzair is a socialist Zionist youth movement founded in Eastern Europe in the early 20th century, emphasizing the ideals of socialism, education, and Jewish identity. It played a crucial role in the establishment of Jewish agricultural communities in Palestine and was known for its commitment to creating a new Jewish society based on egalitarian principles. The movement was significant during the Holocaust for its involvement in resistance efforts and the broader context of Jewish self-defense.
Oneg Shabbat Archive: The Oneg Shabbat Archive refers to a collection of documents, photographs, and testimonies that were preserved by members of the Jewish community in the Warsaw Ghetto during the Holocaust. This archive, initiated by Emanuel Ringelblum, aimed to document the experiences and struggles of Jews under Nazi occupation, providing a historical account of life in the ghetto and the resistance efforts that took place amid extreme persecution.
Cultural resistance: Cultural resistance refers to the ways in which individuals and groups express their opposition to dominant cultural norms, often during oppressive regimes or societal upheaval. This form of resistance can manifest through art, literature, music, and other cultural expressions that challenge the status quo and uphold alternative values, contributing to a sense of identity and solidarity among those who resist.
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising: The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was a significant act of Jewish resistance against Nazi oppression that took place in April 1943 in the Warsaw Ghetto in Poland. It marked a desperate attempt by the Jewish inhabitants to fight back against their deportation to extermination camps and the overall annihilation of their community. This uprising is emblematic of the broader themes of resistance, rescue efforts, and the complex roles played by collaborators during the Holocaust.
Bielski Brothers: The Bielski Brothers were a group of Jewish partisans during World War II who led the Bielski Otriad, a resistance movement in the Naliboki Forest of Belarus. They played a significant role in rescuing and protecting Jews from Nazi persecution, demonstrating the complexities of resistance, rescue, and collaboration during this harrowing time.
Partisan Movements: Partisan movements refer to organized groups of resistance fighters who took up arms against occupying forces during conflicts, particularly in World War II. These movements often emerged in response to the oppressive regimes and were crucial in the fight against fascism, utilizing guerrilla tactics to disrupt enemy operations. They played a significant role in both direct military engagements and broader efforts of sabotage, providing not only military resistance but also political and social mobilization within occupied countries.
Spiritual resistance: Spiritual resistance refers to the acts of defiance and the preservation of identity, culture, and faith in the face of oppression, particularly during times of severe persecution. This form of resistance is often non-violent and encompasses various ways individuals and communities maintain their beliefs, traditions, and morale despite the brutal realities they face.
Civil Disobedience: Civil disobedience is the active, nonviolent refusal to obey certain laws or governmental demands as a form of protest against perceived injustice. It is often used by marginalized groups seeking social change and has roots in philosophical ideas about moral responsibility and justice. This form of resistance emphasizes the importance of individual conscience over compliance with laws that are considered immoral or unjust.