2.1 Social Classes and Urban Life

Europe's social classes and urban life underwent massive changes from 1890 to 1945. The rigid class structure of aristocrats, middle class, and workers was shaken up by industrialization, creating new economic opportunities and challenges.

Cities exploded in size as people flocked to factory jobs, leading to overcrowding and poor conditions for many. But urban areas also saw new forms of entertainment, consumer culture, and political movements that reshaped society.

Social Classes in Turn-of-the-Century Europe

Class Structure and Characteristics

• European class structure divided into three main categories upper class, middle class, and working class with distinct socioeconomic characteristics and cultural norms
• Upper class consisted of aristocracy, landed gentry, and wealthy industrialists held significant economic and political power
  • Maintained status through inheritance and strategic marriages
• Middle class subdivided into upper middle class (professionals, managers) and lower middle class (shopkeepers, clerks)
  • Varying degrees of economic stability and social mobility
• Working class largest social group included skilled laborers, factory workers, and domestic servants
  • Faced challenging living conditions and limited opportunities for advancement
• Social mobility between classes limited but increasing, particularly for middle class
  • Factors contributing to mobility education, industrialization, and changing economic structures
• Class distinctions reflected in various aspects of daily life housing, education, dress, leisure activities, and social etiquette
• Regional variations in class structure existed across Europe
  • Differences between urban and rural areas
  • Variations between more industrialized nations and primarily agrarian ones

Social Dynamics and Cultural Norms

• Upper class social norms emphasized refinement, etiquette, and cultural pursuits (opera, fine arts)
• Middle class values centered on respectability, work ethic, and moral propriety
  • Emphasis on education and self-improvement
• Working class culture characterized by solidarity, local community ties, and often, labor activism
• Social interactions between classes limited, with strict rules of etiquette governing cross-class encounters
• Marriage patterns largely endogamous within social classes
  • Exceptions sometimes occurred, often leading to social stigma or ostracism
• Leisure activities varied by class
  • Upper class enjoyed hunting, horse racing, and grand tours
  • Middle class pursued activities like reading clubs, amateur sports, and seaside holidays
  • Working class engaged in pub culture, music halls, and local festivals
• Religious affiliations often aligned with class distinctions (Anglican Church for upper classes, Nonconformist denominations for middle and working classes in Britain)

Economic Foundations of Class Structure

• Upper class wealth primarily derived from land ownership, investments, and increasingly, industrial enterprises
• Middle class economic status based on professional salaries, small business ownership, and investments
• Working class relied on wages from manual labor, often struggling with economic insecurity
• Inheritance laws and practices reinforced class divisions, particularly primogeniture among the upper class
• Taxation systems often favored the wealthy, with limited redistribution of wealth
• Access to credit and financial services varied significantly between classes
  • Upper and middle classes had greater access to banking and investment opportunities
  • Working class often relied on informal lending networks or pawnbrokers
• Economic cycles and market fluctuations impacted classes differently
  • Working class most vulnerable to economic downturns
  • Middle class experienced both opportunities for advancement and risks of downward mobility

Industrialization's Impact on Social Classes

Shifting Employment Patterns

• Industrialization led to significant shift in employment patterns
  • Rural workers migrated to urban centers for factory jobs resulting in growth of urban working class
• Middle class expanded and diversified due to new economic opportunities
  • Creation of managerial positions, specialized professions, and entrepreneurship
• Traditional aristocracy faced challenges to status and power
  • Industrial magnates and financiers gained economic influence led to restructuring of upper class
• Emergence of new industrial elite challenged old aristocratic order
  • Self-made industrialists (Andrew Carnegie, Alfred Krupp) gained social prominence
• Skilled artisans and craftsmen often displaced by mechanization
  • Some transitioned to factory work, others struggled to maintain independent workshops
• Agricultural labor force decreased as mechanization and urbanization progressed
  • Led to changes in rural class structures and increased urban migration
• Growth of service sector created new middle-class occupations
  • Retail, finance, and clerical work expanded, particularly in urban areas

Education and Social Mobility

• Education became increasingly important for social mobility
  • Expansion of public schooling and establishment of technical and vocational institutions
• Middle-class emphasis on education as means of maintaining or improving social status
  • Investment in children's education seen as path to professional careers
• Working-class access to education improved but remained limited compared to upper classes
  • Compulsory education laws increased literacy rates but class disparities persisted
• Universities began to open up to broader range of social classes
  • Oxbridge in UK still dominated by upper classes, while newer institutions more accessible
• Technical education and apprenticeship programs developed to meet industrial needs
  • Provided pathways for skilled working-class individuals to enter lower middle class
• Adult education movements emerged (Workers' Educational Association in UK)
  • Aimed to provide continuing education opportunities for working-class adults
• Gender disparities in education slowly began to be addressed
  • Increasing access to education for women, particularly in middle and upper classes

Consumer Culture and Lifestyle Changes

• Consumer culture emerged, particularly among middle class
  • Mass production made goods more affordable and accessible
• Department stores (Harrods in London, Le Bon Marché in Paris) revolutionized shopping experience
  • Provided wide range of goods and new social space, particularly for middle-class women
• Fashion became more accessible to broader range of social classes
  • Ready-to-wear clothing and mass-produced accessories allowed for emulation of upper-class styles
• New forms of entertainment and leisure activities developed
  • Cinemas, sports clubs, and holiday resorts catered to different class preferences
• Household technologies (sewing machines, gas stoves) changed domestic life
  • Impacted middle-class households more quickly than working-class homes
• Advertising industry grew, promoting consumer goods and shaping class aspirations
  • Magazines and newspapers targeted different social classes with tailored advertisements
• Transportation advancements (bicycles, early automobiles) altered social interactions and mobility
  • Initially luxury items for upper classes, gradually became more accessible to middle class

Urban Life in the Industrial Era

Housing and Living Conditions

• Rapid urbanization led to development of overcrowded slums and tenements
  • Characterized by poor sanitation, inadequate housing, and spread of diseases
• Working-class housing often consisted of back-to-back terraces or tenement blocks
  • Lacked proper ventilation, running water, and sanitation facilities
• Middle-class suburbs emerged on outskirts of cities
  • Provided more spacious housing and escape from urban center's pollution
• Upper-class neighborhoods featured grand townhouses and mansions
  • Often located in exclusive areas (West End in London, 16th arrondissement in Paris)
• Housing reforms gradually implemented in some cities
  • Model housing projects (Peabody Trust in London) aimed to improve working-class living conditions
• Garden city movement (Letchworth in England) proposed alternative urban planning models
  • Aimed to combine benefits of town and country living
• Sanitation improvements slowly implemented in urban areas
  • Introduction of sewage systems and clean water supplies reduced disease outbreaks

Work Environment and Labor Conditions

• Factory workers often endured long hours, dangerous working conditions, and low wages
  • Child labor common in many industries, particularly textiles and mining
• Emergence of "sweated" industries in urban areas
  • Home-based work in garment and small goods production often exploited women and children
• Office work expanded, creating new work environments for middle-class employees
  • Introduction of typewriters and filing systems changed nature of clerical work
• Retail sector grew with department stores and specialized shops
  • Provided new employment opportunities, particularly for women
• Domestic service remained a significant employer, especially for working-class women
  • Conditions varied widely depending on household's social status
• Gradual implementation of factory regulations and labor laws
  • Reduced working hours, improved safety standards, and restricted child labor
• Growth of professional class led to development of office buildings and commercial districts
  • Changed urban landscape and created new work environments

Urban Infrastructure and Public Spaces

• Development of public transportation systems altered urban landscapes
  • Omnibuses, electric trams, and underground railways improved mobility for city dwellers
• Urban planning initiatives implemented in some cities to address overcrowding
  • Creation of parks (Central Park in New York, Bois de Boulogne in Paris) provided green spaces
  • Widening of streets (Haussmann's renovation of Paris) improved traffic flow and public health
• Public health issues prevalent in urban areas
  • Cholera outbreaks and high infant mortality rates prompted eventual reforms in sanitation and healthcare
• Emergence of public institutions and civic buildings
  • Libraries, museums, and town halls served as centers of urban culture and administration
• Street lighting (gas lamps, later electric) improved safety and extended hours of urban activity
• Water supply systems developed to provide clean water to urban populations
  • Reduced waterborne diseases and improved overall public health
• Waste management systems gradually implemented
  • Introduction of municipal garbage collection and sewage treatment facilities

Social and Political Responses to Change

Labor Movements and Trade Unions

• Trade unions and labor movements gained strength advocating for workers' rights
  • Fought for better working conditions and fair wages through strikes and collective bargaining
• Emergence of national trade union federations (Trade Union Congress in UK, Confédération Générale du Travail in France)
  • Provided unified voice for working-class interests
• Socialist parties formed close ties with labor movements
  • German Social Democratic Party became largest party in Reichstag by 1912
• Syndicalism promoted idea of general strike as tool for social revolution
  • Influential in France and Spain
• Craft unions initially dominated, later challenged by industrial unionism
  • Debates over organizing workers by skill or industry
• Labor movements faced government repression and legal restrictions
  • Gradual recognition of trade unions and right to strike in many countries
• International solidarity among workers developed
  • Formation of international labor organizations (First and Second Internationals)

Political Ideologies and Movements

• Socialist and communist ideologies gained traction among working class
  • Challenged existing capitalist system and promoted ideas of class struggle and social equality
• Marxism provided theoretical framework for many socialist movements
  • Influenced development of social democratic and communist parties
• Anarchist groups developed, rejecting state authority
  • Promoted radical social reorganization, often through violent means (propaganda of the deed)
• Conservative and reactionary movements emerged in response to social changes
  • Sought to preserve traditional social hierarchies and values
• Liberal parties advocated for gradual reforms within capitalist framework
  • Supported expansion of suffrage and civil liberties
• Nationalist movements intensified in many European countries
  • Often intertwined with class-based grievances and aspirations for political reform
• Rise of mass political parties transformed nature of political participation
  • Represented various ideological positions and class interests

Social Reform and Progressive Movements

• Suffrage movements emerged across Europe, particularly for women's right to vote
  • Reflected changing attitudes towards gender roles and political participation
• Social reform movements led by middle-class philanthropists and religious organizations
  • Sought to address urban poverty and improve living conditions for working class
• Settlement house movement (Toynbee Hall in London) aimed to bridge class divides
  • Middle-class volunteers lived and worked in poor neighborhoods
• Temperance movement gained support, particularly among middle-class reformers
  • Viewed alcohol as source of social problems and advocated for prohibition
• Child welfare reforms implemented in many countries
  • Restrictions on child labor and introduction of compulsory education
• Public health initiatives addressed urban sanitation and disease prevention
  • Vaccination programs and improved medical care reduced mortality rates
• Housing reform movements advocated for improved working-class accommodations
  • Led to development of social housing projects in some cities