Fiveable
Fiveable
European History – 1890 to 1945
Unit 1 Overview: Nationalism, Imperialism & Alliances (1890s)
1.1 The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
1.2 European Imperialism and Colonial Expansion
1.3 The Alliance System and Balance of Power
1.4 Technological and Industrial Advancements

The alliance system in late 19th century Europe was a complex web of diplomatic agreements and military pacts. Driven by national security concerns and territorial ambitions, it aimed to create strategic partnerships and counterbalance potential threats among European powers.

The balance of power concept sought to prevent any single nation from achieving hegemony in Europe. While initially successful in maintaining stability, the system ultimately failed to prevent World War I due to its rigidity and inability to adapt to rapid changes in power dynamics and international relations.

Formation of European Alliances

Emergence and Early Development

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  • Alliance system emerged as complex network of diplomatic agreements and military pacts between European powers in late 19th century
    • Driven by concerns over national security and territorial ambitions
    • Aimed to create strategic partnerships and counterbalance potential threats
  • Dual Alliance of 1879 between Germany and Austria-Hungary marked beginning of formal alliance system
    • Served as counterweight to potential Russian aggression
    • Established mutual defense pact in case of attack by Russia
  • Italy joined Dual Alliance in 1882, forming Triple Alliance
    • Aimed to isolate France and maintain balance of power in Europe
    • Provided Italy with support for its colonial ambitions in North Africa

Expansion and Realignment

  • Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894 established as response to Triple Alliance
    • Created strategic partnership between two geographically distant powers
    • Broke Russia's isolation and provided France with eastern ally against Germany
  • Britain's "splendid isolation" policy gradually shifted
    • Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 marked first formal alliance since Crimean War
    • Entente Cordiale with France in 1904 signaled major change in British foreign policy
  • Triple Entente formed in 1907 with Anglo-Russian Convention
    • Completed alignment of Britain, France, and Russia
    • Effectively divided Europe into two opposing camps (Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente)

Late Developments and Tensions

  • Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 strained alliance system
    • Exposed fragility of great power relationships
    • Intensified rivalries in southeastern Europe (Austria-Hungary vs. Russia)
  • Renewal and modification of alliances occurred regularly
    • Italy's commitment to Triple Alliance weakened over time
    • Secret agreements and clauses added complexity to alliance obligations
  • Colonial rivalries impacted European alliances
    • Fashoda Incident of 1898 between Britain and France
    • Moroccan Crises of 1905 and 1911 tested alliance loyalties

Effectiveness of Balance of Power

Concept and Early Success

  • Balance of power aimed to prevent single nation from achieving hegemony in Europe
    • Created system of alliances and counter-alliances
    • Sought to maintain equilibrium between major powers
  • Congress of Vienna in 1815 established principle of balance of power
    • Cornerstone of European diplomacy throughout 19th century
    • Influenced formation of alliances and international relations
  • System successfully prevented major continental wars for several decades
    • Contributed to relative stability of "Concert of Europe" period
    • Allowed for peaceful resolution of conflicts through diplomacy (Congress of Berlin 1878)

Challenges to Stability

  • Unification of Germany in 1871 significantly altered European power dynamics
    • Led to recalibration of alliances and diplomatic relationships
    • Created new center of power in Central Europe
  • Arms race between European powers undermined stability
    • Naval competition between Britain and Germany (Dreadnought class battleships)
    • Increased military spending and technological advancements
  • Colonial rivalries and imperial ambitions strained relationships
    • Scramble for Africa intensified competition (Berlin Conference 1884-1885)
    • Conflicts in Asia and Middle East (Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905)

Limitations and Failure

  • Rigidity of alliance system contributed to outbreak of World War I
    • Alliances designed for defense became mechanisms for war
    • July Crisis of 1914 escalated due to alliance obligations
  • Balance of power failed to prevent large-scale conflicts
    • Unable to contain nationalist aspirations and imperial ambitions
    • System became too complex and inflexible to adapt to rapid changes
  • Economic interdependence did not guarantee peace
    • Trade relationships and financial ties insufficient to prevent war
    • Economic rivalry (access to resources, markets) contributed to tensions

Diplomacy in Alliance Formation

Diplomatic Practices and Key Figures

  • Diplomatic negotiations and secret treaties crucial in forming alliances
    • Conducted by skilled statesmen (Otto von Bismarck, Lord Salisbury)
    • Often involved complex trade-offs and compromises
  • Congress of Berlin in 1878 exemplified importance of multilateral diplomacy
    • Addressed Balkan crisis following Russo-Turkish War
    • Demonstrated role of great power diplomacy in maintaining balance
  • Personal relationships between monarchs influenced diplomatic interactions
    • Kaiser Wilhelm II and Tsar Nicholas II (cousins)
    • King Edward VII's personal diplomacy in improving Anglo-French relations

Diplomatic Strategies and Challenges

  • Use of diplomatic crises as tools for testing alliances became common
    • Moroccan Crises of 1905 and 1911
    • Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909
  • Economic diplomacy played significant role in cementing alliances
    • Trade agreements (Anglo-French Commercial Treaty of 1860)
    • Financial cooperation (French loans to Russia)
  • Rise of public diplomacy impacted traditional diplomatic practices
    • Influence of public opinion on foreign policy decisions increased
    • Press and propaganda used to shape international perceptions

Evolution and Limitations of Diplomacy

  • Diplomatic immunity and extraterritoriality reinforced importance of diplomats
    • Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations (codified in 1961, based on earlier practices)
    • Allowed for protected negotiations in foreign capitals
  • Failure of diplomacy to resolve July Crisis of 1914 highlighted system limitations
    • Unable to prevent escalation of conflict within rigid alliance structure
    • Short timetables and ultimatums reduced room for negotiation
  • Emergence of new diplomatic actors challenged traditional state-centric model
    • International organizations (International Telegraph Union 1865)
    • Non-governmental organizations (International Red Cross 1863)

Key Terms to Review (29)

Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty of Versailles was a peace agreement signed in 1919 that officially ended World War I, imposing significant penalties and territorial losses on Germany. Its terms aimed to prevent future conflicts but instead fueled nationalistic sentiments and resentment in Germany, contributing to the rise of extremism and the onset of World War II.
Treaty of London: The Treaty of London, signed in 1915, was a secret agreement between the Allies and Italy that promised Italy territorial gains in exchange for joining the war against the Central Powers. This treaty highlighted the shifting alliances and ambitions of European nations, as well as the intense nationalistic fervor that characterized the early years of World War I.
Dreadnought: A dreadnought is a type of battleship introduced in the early 20th century that revolutionized naval warfare due to its all-big-gun armament and steam turbine propulsion. This new class of battleship rendered previous warships obsolete and played a crucial role in the naval arms race among European powers, particularly influencing the dynamics of the alliance system and the balance of power leading up to World War I.
Concert of Europe: The Concert of Europe was a system of diplomatic and political cooperation among the major European powers established after the Napoleonic Wars, aimed at maintaining stability and preventing the outbreak of widespread conflict. This informal alliance sought to balance power through collective decision-making, where nations would work together to resolve disputes and maintain the status quo in Europe.
Congress of Berlin: The Congress of Berlin was a diplomatic meeting held in 1878, aimed at resolving the territorial disputes in the Balkans following the Russo-Turkish War. This gathering involved major European powers, including Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Russia, and it significantly impacted the balance of power in Europe by redistributing territories and altering the political landscape in the region.
Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was an international conference held from 1814 to 1815, aimed at restoring stability and order in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. It marked a significant moment in European history as the major powers sought to establish a balance of power that would prevent future conflicts and maintain peace on the continent.
Anglo-Japanese Alliance: The Anglo-Japanese Alliance was a military agreement formed in 1902 between the United Kingdom and the Empire of Japan, aimed at countering Russian expansion in East Asia. This alliance marked a significant shift in international relations, showcasing Japan's emergence as a world power and solidifying Britain's strategy of balancing power in Asia, while also impacting the dynamics of the alliance system in Europe.
Dual Alliance: The Dual Alliance was a military pact formed in 1879 between Germany and Austria-Hungary, aimed at countering the growing influence of Russia in Eastern Europe. This alliance marked a significant shift in the balance of power, as it solidified Germany's commitment to Austria-Hungary and created a framework for mutual military support in case of an attack by Russia, which was perceived as a common threat.
Balkan Wars: The Balkan Wars were two conflicts that took place in the early 20th century (1912-1913) involving several Balkan states fighting against the Ottoman Empire and later against each other. These wars aimed to gain territory and independence from Ottoman rule, leading to significant territorial changes in Southeast Europe, and impacting the balance of power in the region.
Realpolitik: Realpolitik refers to a political approach that prioritizes practical and pragmatic considerations over moral or ideological ones. This term is often associated with the foreign policies of powerful states during periods of political tension, where decisions are made based on national interests and power dynamics rather than ethical concerns or ideological commitments. It emphasizes the importance of balance of power, often leading to alliances or conflicts that reflect the interests of nations rather than their stated values.
Berlin Conference: The Berlin Conference was a meeting held in 1884-1885 among European powers to establish rules for the colonization and trade in Africa. This conference played a crucial role in the Scramble for Africa, as it formalized the partitioning of the continent among European nations, impacting global politics and the balance of power significantly.
Failure of deterrence: The failure of deterrence refers to the inability of a state or alliance to prevent aggression from another state through the threat of retaliation or punishment. This concept is crucial in understanding how the balance of power can shift and lead to conflict, particularly in the context of alliances formed to maintain stability and peace in Europe during the early 20th century.
Escalation of Tensions: Escalation of tensions refers to the increase in hostility and conflict among nations or groups, often leading to a breakdown of diplomacy and heightened military readiness. This process is crucial in understanding how alliances can create an environment where small disputes can spiral into larger conflicts, especially in the context of competing powers vying for dominance.
Balance of power theory: Balance of power theory is a political and military concept that suggests stability and peace can be achieved when military power is distributed so that no one nation is strong enough to dominate the others. This theory was a key factor in the formation of alliances during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as countries sought to prevent any single power from becoming overly dominant, leading to a system of alliances aimed at maintaining this balance.
David Lloyd George: David Lloyd George was a prominent British statesman who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during World War I and in the early 1920s. He played a key role in shaping British policy during the war and was instrumental in the post-war negotiations, particularly at the Treaty of Versailles, where he sought to balance national interests with those of the Allied powers.
Schlieffen Plan: The Schlieffen Plan was a military strategy developed by Germany in the early 20th century aimed at swiftly defeating France and then redirecting forces to the Eastern Front against Russia during World War I. This plan was designed to prevent a prolonged two-front war, which Germany feared would weaken its military effectiveness. It connects to major battles, mobilization efforts, initial public sentiment, and the complex web of alliances that characterized pre-war Europe.
War of attrition: A war of attrition is a military strategy aimed at wearing down an opponent through continuous losses in personnel and material, rather than through decisive battles or swift maneuvers. This approach relies on the idea that over time, the sustained pressure will weaken the enemy’s resolve and capabilities, leading to eventual victory. This strategy was particularly prominent during World War I, where both sides faced extensive trench warfare and sought to outlast each other, shaping the military strategies and alliances formed in that era.
Moroccan Crises: The Moroccan Crises refer to two international disputes in the early 20th century involving France, Germany, and Morocco that heightened tensions among European powers. These crises, particularly the Agadir Crisis of 1911, were significant as they revealed the fragility of alliances and the struggle for imperial dominance, setting the stage for increased hostility leading up to World War I.
Militarism: Militarism is the belief or desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests. This ideology led to an arms race among the great powers in Europe during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, contributing to tensions and rivalries. The emphasis on military strength not only affected foreign policy but also influenced domestic politics and society, fostering an environment where military solutions were favored over diplomatic ones.
Diplomatic negotiations: Diplomatic negotiations refer to the discussions and bargaining processes between representatives of states or international organizations aimed at resolving conflicts, reaching agreements, or establishing treaties. These negotiations often involve complex interactions where various interests are balanced to achieve a mutually acceptable outcome, which is essential in maintaining peace and stability among nations.
Franco-Russian Alliance: The Franco-Russian Alliance was a military alliance formed between France and Russia in 1894, primarily aimed at countering the growing threat of Germany and the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. This alliance was significant as it reflected the shifting balance of power in Europe and was a critical factor leading up to World War I, influencing the dynamics of international relations during this period.
Triple Entente: The Triple Entente was a military alliance formed in the early 20th century, consisting of France, Russia, and Great Britain. This agreement was significant in shaping the geopolitical landscape of Europe prior to World War I, as it aimed to counterbalance the growing power of the Triple Alliance, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. The entente solidified relationships between these nations and played a critical role in the events leading up to and during the July Crisis, mobilization, and initial reactions to the war.
Entente Cordiale: The Entente Cordiale was a series of agreements signed in 1904 between the United Kingdom and France, marking the end of centuries of conflict and establishing a new cooperative framework. This arrangement significantly reshaped the balance of power in Europe, influencing alliances and rivalries leading up to World War I, as it helped strengthen relations between the two nations against the growing threat of Germany.
Triple Alliance: The Triple Alliance was a military and political alliance formed in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, primarily aimed at counterbalancing the influence of France and its allies. This alliance significantly shaped the diplomatic landscape leading up to World War I, influencing events like the July Crisis, mobilization strategies, public sentiment, and the broader balance of power in Europe.
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on June 28, 1914, was a pivotal event that triggered the outbreak of World War I. This act of violence by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the nationalist group Black Hand, not only escalated tensions between Austria-Hungary and Serbia but also set off a chain reaction among the European powers, leading to the July Crisis and the mobilization of alliances.
July Crisis: The July Crisis refers to the series of diplomatic and military escalations that occurred in July 1914, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. This crisis set off a chain reaction among the major European powers, leading to the outbreak of World War I. The crisis highlights the fragility of the alliance system and the balance of power in Europe, as nations quickly mobilized and declared war, demonstrating how interconnected political alliances could lead to widespread conflict.
Collective security: Collective security is a system in which states work together to ensure mutual defense against aggressors, based on the idea that an attack on one is an attack on all. This concept relies on the collective will of nations to deter threats and maintain peace, and it became a foundational principle in international relations following World War I.
Otto von Bismarck: Otto von Bismarck was a German statesman who served as the first Chancellor of the German Empire from 1871 to 1890, known for his role in unifying Germany through a series of strategic wars and diplomatic efforts. He skillfully navigated the rise of nationalism by manipulating alliances and employing Realpolitik, thus establishing a balance of power that would shape European politics for decades.
Imperialism: Imperialism is the policy or ideology of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military force, or other means. It involves the domination of one nation over another, often justified by economic interests, national prestige, or cultural superiority. This concept is crucial for understanding the ambitions of various European nations in their quest for territory and resources, as well as the alliances formed to balance power and maintain control in a competitive international landscape.