6.2 The League of Nations and Collective Security

The League of Nations, born from the ashes of World War I, aimed to prevent future conflicts through collective security. This ambitious project sought to replace power politics with international cooperation, establishing a framework for peaceful dispute resolution and global governance.

Despite some early successes in minor disputes, the League ultimately failed to prevent major aggressions in the 1930s. Its inability to enforce decisions, coupled with the absence of key powers like the US, exposed the challenges of collective security in a world of competing national interests.

The League of Nations: Structure and Principles

Organizational Framework

• Established in 1920 as part of the Paris Peace Conference following World War I
• Primary goal focused on maintaining world peace through international cooperation
• Structure consisted of three main bodies each with distinct roles and responsibilities
  • Assembly served as forum for all member states to discuss international issues
  • Council acted as executive body addressing immediate threats to peace
  • Permanent Secretariat managed day-to-day operations and administration
• Assembly met annually in Geneva allowing member states to make recommendations
• Council initially composed of four permanent members and four rotating members
• Permanent Secretariat led by Secretary-General overseeing administrative functions

Foundational Principles and Objectives

• Founded on concept of collective security to prevent future wars
• Aimed to resolve international conflicts through diplomatic negotiation and economic sanctions
• Covenant of the League of Nations outlined key objectives
  • Promote international disarmament to reduce risk of conflict
  • Settle international disputes through peaceful means (arbitration, negotiation)
  • Improve global welfare through social and economic cooperation
  • Enforce provisions of the Treaty of Versailles to maintain post-war order
• Sought to create a system of mutual defense and cooperation among member states
• Emphasized importance of transparency in international relations and diplomacy

Successes and Failures of the League

Notable Achievements

• Successfully resolved several minor territorial disputes in the 1920s
  • Mediated Åland Islands dispute between Finland and Sweden (1920-1921)
  • Settled Upper Silesia dispute between Germany and Poland (1921)
• Implemented significant humanitarian efforts
  • Repatriated over 400,000 prisoners of war after World War I
  • Established Refugee Organization to assist displaced persons
  • Combated global health issues (campaigns against typhus, malaria)
• Promoted international cooperation in non-political areas
  • Created International Labor Organization to improve working conditions
  • Established Permanent Court of International Justice for legal disputes

Critical Failures and Weaknesses

• Failed to prevent major acts of aggression in the 1930s
  • Unable to stop Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931
  • Ineffective in halting Italy's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935
• Struggled to enforce disarmament agreements and prevent rearmament
  • Germany's rearmament in violation of Treaty of Versailles went unchecked
  • Failed to achieve meaningful arms reduction among member states
• Lacked participation of major world powers
  • United States never joined, weakening League's global influence
  • Germany and Japan withdrew in 1933, further diminishing League's authority
• Suffered from structural and operational limitations
  • Absence of independent military force hindered intervention capabilities
  • Economic sanctions proved ineffective in deterring aggressive actions
  • Unanimity requirement in decision-making often led to inaction

Collective Security in the Interwar Period

Principles and Mechanisms

• Based on idea that aggression against one state considered an act against all
• Required unified response from international community to deter or punish aggressors
• League of Nations represented first attempt at global collective security system
• Article 16 of League Covenant outlined collective security mechanism
  • Required members to sever economic ties with aggressors
  • Called for mutual defense efforts against violators of international peace
• Aimed to create deterrent effect through threat of united opposition to aggression
• Sought to replace balance of power system with cooperative security arrangement

Challenges and Limitations

• Unanimity principle in League decision-making often paralyzed swift action
  • Demonstrated in slow responses to Manchurian and Ethiopian crises
• Great power politics frequently trumped collective security commitments
  • National interests led to selective enforcement of League principles
• Lack of universal membership weakened effectiveness of collective security
  • Absence of United States significantly reduced League's global influence
• Economic interdependence complicated implementation of sanctions
  • Comprehensive economic measures often harmed enforcing countries as well
• Failure of collective security in 1930s led to shift in international relations
  • Power politics and bilateral alliances gained prominence
  • Ultimately contributed to outbreak of World War II by failing to check aggression
• Revealed difficulties in achieving consensus among diverse national interests
  • Cultural and ideological differences hindered unified responses to threats