Now that we have all the building blocks of notes, rhythms, and chords out of the way, we can start to analyze music and the rules of putting pitch combinations together.
The way individual voices of a composition move from chord to chord is called voice leading. Back in the 17th and 18th-century, when writing music was becoming normalized, rules of voice leading came about to guide composers on how to create auditorily-pleasing compositions. This era is considered the Common Practice Period (CPP), and describes the years roughly between 1650 (Baroque Period) to 1900 (Romantic Period).
When heeding voice leading rules, any composer (or AP Music Theory student!) must take into consideration the correct chord spelling, spacing, and doubling of notes in the chords. This way, voice leading can achieve linear smoothness (there aren’t big unexpected jumps) and bring about the independence of voices (there shouldn’t be one voice that is basically copying the other voice).
Soprano-Bass Counterpoint
In this subunit, we are focusing on the relationship between the soprano and the bass lines of a typical four-part harmony. This is a chorale in four-part harmonies, composed by Johann Sebastian Bach.
If you look in the first measure, you see that all the stems of the notes on the top in treble clef are facing upwards. This is called the soprano line. The notes also on the treble clef, but below with the stems facing down, are all the alto line. Moving to the bass clef, the notes facing up are in the tenor line, and the notes with stems going down are the bass line.
Have you ever sung in a choir? Or at least heard something with a choir? The notes above correlate with the voices in a choir.
SATB for short!
Furthermore, in the chorale above, you can see the start of musical structure, with notes all leading to a fermata.
When you see these fermati in four-part writing, you know you have reached a cadence, or the end of a musical phrase. Not all cadences have a fermata, but especially in J.S. Bach's writing, or other chorales, phrases are ended by fermati. We will go into depth about cadences in Unit 4.3, so don't forget this definition!
Types of Motion
In four-part writing, the lineal movement between two voices can happen in four different ways:
1) Parallel motion: voices move in the same direction (both up or both down) by the same melodic interval.
2) Similar motion: voice move in the same direction but not by the same melodic interval.
3) Oblique motion: one voice remains still while the second moves up or down.
4) Contrary motion: voices move in opposite directions.
Voice Leading Rules for Outer Voices
Using the above categories, the composers of 18th-century voice leading developed guidelines for writing music in four-part harmonies.
Good question. In the list below, remember that voice leading is how voices in one chord arrive at the next chord. Here is the beginning of the guidelines! Pay attention, these will get the money points on the AP free response questions 🤑.
- Voice leading should proceed mostly by step without excessive leaps.
- When possible, pitches common to adjacent chords, or common tones, should be retained in the same voice part(s).
- For clarity of voice leading, any chord should maintain soprano-alto-tenor-bass (SATB) order from high to low to avoid voice crossing.
- If a perfect fifth between two voices is not immediately repeated, it should proceed to an interval other than another perfect fifth between the same voices. This applies to parallel motion (i.e., parallel fifths) as well as contrary motion; it also applies to nonadjacent chords on successive beats.
- If a perfect octave or unison between two voices is not immediately repeated, it should proceed to an interval other than another perfect octave or perfect unison between the same voices. This applies to parallel motion (i.e., parallel octaves) as well as contrary motion; it also applies to nonadjacent chords on successive beats.
- All voices should proceed melodically with the following intervals—major and minor second, major and minor third, perfect fourth, and perfect fifth. All melodic augmented and diminished intervals should be excluded, as they produce uncharacteristic dissonances. All melodic intervals larger than a perfect fifth should also be excluded, as they create uncharacteristic disjunct motion.
- The leading tone in an outer voice (i.e., soprano or bass) should always resolve up by step to avoid an unresolved leading tone
- Outer voices may include leading tones as long as those leading tones are not doubled in another voice and resolve to the tonic by ascending in stepwise motion, to avoid an unresolved leading tone.
We also need to think about the dissonances between the outer voices. In general, you should avoid dissonances between the outer voices, which would usually occur when you are writing seventh chords. Fourths between the outer voices are okay, and generally major and minor sevenths and seconds are also okay. What you really need to watch out for are augmented and diminished intervals between the outer voices – especially the tritone.
Another thing that you should generally avoid are cross-relations, where one voice plays a note and a voice directly preceding or succeeding it plays a chromaticized version of that note. Usually, this happens in minor, when you raise the 7th. Before submitting, make sure that you don’t have a non-raised seventh near the raised seventh.
In the AP Music Theory test, you will need to create a bass line to an established soprano line. How do I create a rocking bass line in the CCP? There are rules for this also!
- All implied chords must allow the corresponding soprano notes to make harmonic sense.
- An acceptable harmonic progression can be made using tonic, supertonic, subdominant, and dominant triads exclusively, as long as the normative procedures of harmonic progression are followed.
- Repeated instances of a specific harmony— that is, repeating a particular chord in a particular position (root position or inversion)— are acceptable only if the repeated harmonies start on a strong beat. However, at the beginning of a phrase, the repeated harmonies may start on a weak beat.
- Melodic interest in a bass line may be created by balancing upward and downward motion and by balancing melodic steps and leaps.
- A bass line uses melodic leaps with greater frequency than upper voices or parts, which tend toward more stepwise motion.
- Allowable leaps include thirds, perfect fourths and fifths, sixths, and octaves, and, if resolved properly, descending diminished fifths.
- Octave leaps should be followed by changes in direction.
- The bass line may include successive leaps in the same direction as long as the pitches outline a triad.
- Repeated bass notes are acceptable only if they start on a strong beat. However, the repeated notes may start on a weak beat if it is the beginning of a phrase or if the second note is a suspension.
- Although bass lines may feature note values ranging from half notes to eighth notes, the quarter note is the most frequent rhythmic value
Notating the Outer Voices
Along with writing SATB chord progressions with proper voice leading, you will also have to notate chord progressions by ear, and include the corresponding figured bass.
The big idea here is that the outer voices will provide important clues as to which chords you are hearing, so when you are trying to figure out the chords, listening to the outer voices is key.
This seems like a difficult task. You might be wondering: “How can I figure out which voice is which?” This is why voice leading is so important. Remember that most voices, especially the top voice, move in stepwise motion. So, if you’re hearing big leaps, you’re probably hearing the wrong voice.
Once you have the top and bottom voice, you will pretty much know the chords and the inversions. If, by chance, you can’t figure it out, you should make an educated guess based on what you know about chord progressions.
Chord Positions
Now let's get back to looking at those four-part chorales.
There are different ways to categorize the spacing between voices on the staff. We consider them either open or closed positions.
In a closed position, all upper voices (soprano, alto, and tenor) are placed as close together as chord tones will allow. Any other spacing is considered an open position.
Closed position is on the left, and open position is on the right.
🦜 Polly wants a progress tracker: What are 3 guidelines to consider when writing a bass line from an established soprano line?
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| 18th-century chorale | A hymn-like composition from the Baroque period, typically featuring four-part harmony with a soprano melody and supporting bass, alto, and tenor lines. |
| Arabic numerals | Numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.) used in figured bass notation to denote specific intervals above a given bass note. |
| bass | The lowest voice part in SATB four-voice texture, typically the lowest musical line. |
| bass line | The lowest melodic line in a musical composition that often implies harmonic progressions through its note choices. |
| cadence | A harmonic progression that marks the end of a phrase and provides punctuation in musical flow. |
| cadential ⁶₄ chord | A second-inversion chord that typically appears before a V-I cadence, functioning as an acceptable harmonic pattern in voice leading. |
| change in direction | A shift in melodic contour from ascending to descending motion or vice versa. |
| chord inversion | A chord voicing in which a chord member other than the root appears in the bass, resulting in first or second inversion. |
| chord spelling | The correct arrangement of the notes of a chord, including all necessary accidentals, to properly represent the harmonic function indicated by Roman numerals or figured bass. |
| chord tone | Any of the individual notes that make up a harmonic chord. |
| chromatically altered pitches | Pitches that are raised or lowered by a semitone from their diatonic position within a key. |
| chromatically inflected pitch | A note that has been altered from its diatonic pitch by the addition of an accidental. |
| close position | A chord spacing where all upper parts are placed as close together as chord tones will allow. |
| common practice era | The period of Western classical music, roughly from 1650 to 1900, characterized by specific conventions of harmony and voice leading. |
| common tones | Pitches that are shared between adjacent chords and should be retained in the same voice part to ensure smooth voice leading. |
| conclusive cadences | Cadences that provide a sense of finality and closure, including perfect authentic and plagal cadences. |
| contrary motion | Movement of two voices in opposite directions. |
| counterpoint | The practice of composing polyphonic music using historical conventions, and the resulting texture of independent melodic lines. |
| cross relation | The prohibited occurrence of a preinflected pitch in one voice directly preceding a chromatically inflected version of that same pitch in another voice. |
| deceptive cadence | A cadence that avoids the expected V-I resolution of an authentic cadence by substituting a non-tonic chord for the tonic. |
| dictation | The process of listening to performed music and notating the pitches and rhythms heard. |
| diminished fifth | An interval spanning five letter names that is one semitone smaller than a perfect fifth, typically requiring proper resolution in counterpoint. |
| dominant triad | A chord built on the fifth scale degree, which creates tension and typically resolves to the tonic. |
| doubling | The practice of having two or more voices or instruments play the same pitch or pitch class in different octaves. |
| downward motion | Melodic movement in which successive pitches descend in pitch. |
| eighth notes | Musical notes with a duration equal to one eighth of a whole note. |
| half cadence | An inconclusive cadence that typically ends on the dominant chord (V). |
| half notes | Musical notes with a duration equal to half of a whole note. |
| harmonic progression | A sequence of chords that move from one harmony to another, creating the harmonic structure of a musical passage. |
| imperfect authentic cadence | An inconclusive cadence created by a V-I progression where chords may be inverted and any chord tone may appear in the soprano. |
| inconclusive cadences | Cadences that do not provide a sense of finality, including half, imperfect authentic, and deceptive cadences. |
| leading tone | The seventh scale degree in a major scale, located one half step below the tonic with a strong tendency to resolve upward to the tonic. |
| major key | A key or tonal center based on a major scale, characterized by a specific pattern of whole and half steps. |
| melodic interest | The quality of a melody that engages the listener through varied and compelling musical ideas. |
| melodic leaps | Movement between non-adjacent pitches in a melody, typically larger than a second. |
| minor key | A key or tonal center based on a minor scale, characterized by a different pattern of whole and half steps than major keys. |
| neighboring ⁶₄ chord | A second-inversion chord that functions as a passing or embellishing chord, typically supported by a pedal tone in the bass. |
| note values | The relative duration of musical notes, such as whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, and eighth notes. |
| note-against-note dissonances | Dissonant intervals that occur between outer voices simultaneously and must imply an acceptable harmonic progression. |
| oblique motion | Movement where one voice remains stationary while the second voice moves up or down. |
| octave leap | A melodic jump spanning eight letter names, requiring a change in direction in the bass line. |
| open position | A chord spacing where the upper parts are spaced more widely apart than in close position. |
| outer voices | The soprano and bass lines in a harmonic progression, which provide structural and harmonic information. |
| parallel fifths | The prohibited motion of two voices moving in the same direction to consecutive perfect fifth intervals. |
| parallel motion | Movement of two voices in the same direction by the same melodic interval. |
| parallel octaves | The prohibited motion of two voices moving in the same direction to consecutive perfect octave intervals. |
| passing ⁶₄ chord | A second-inversion chord that connects two root-position or first-inversion chords in stepwise bass motion. |
| perfect authentic cadence | A conclusive cadence created by a V-I progression with both harmonies in root position, ending with scale degree 1 in the soprano. |
| perfect fifth | An interval spanning five letter names with a frequency ratio of 3:2, considered a perfect consonance in tonal music. |
| perfect fourth | An interval spanning four letter names with a frequency ratio of 4:3, considered a perfect consonance in tonal music. |
| phrases | Complete musical utterances that form syntactical units in music and typically conclude with a cadence. |
| Phrygian half cadence | A cadence that moves from a subdominant chord in first inversion (iv⁶) to a dominant chord (V), used in minor keys only. |
| plagal cadence | A cadence that moves from a subdominant chord (IV or iv) to a tonic chord (I or i), also known as an 'Amen cadence.' |
| quarter notes | Musical notes with a duration equal to one quarter of a whole note. |
| repeated bass notes | The same pitch sounded consecutively in the bass line, subject to specific restrictions regarding beat placement. |
| rhythmic profile | The characteristic pattern of note values and rhythmic patterns that define the style of a musical line. |
| Roman numeral analysis | A system of notation using Roman numerals to identify chords and their harmonic function within a key. |
| root position | A chord voicing in which the chordal root appears in the bass (lowest part) of the chord. |
| SATB order | The arrangement of voices from highest to lowest as soprano, alto, tenor, and bass to maintain proper voice crossing conventions. |
| scale degree 1 | The tonic note, the first degree of a musical scale. |
| similar motion | Movement of two voices in the same direction but not by the same melodic interval. |
| soprano line | The highest melodic line in a musical composition, typically sung by the highest voices or played by the highest instruments. |
| spacing | The vertical distance between adjacent voices in a chord, which affects the clarity and balance of the harmonic sound. |
| step | A melodic interval that traverses adjacent pitches with neighboring letter names. |
| stepwise motion | Movement in a melodic line by adjacent scale degrees, either ascending or descending. |
| strong beat | A beat in a measure that receives primary emphasis, typically the first beat or other metrically accented beats. |
| subdominant triad | A chord built on the fourth scale degree, typically used to move toward the dominant or return to the tonic. |
| supertonic triad | A chord built on the second scale degree of a major or minor scale. |
| suspension | A nonharmonic tone created when a note from a previous chord is held or rearticulated over a new chord before resolving downward by step to a chord tone. |
| tendency tones | Scale degrees that have a strong inclination to resolve to a specific neighboring pitch, such as the leading tone resolving upward to the tonic. |
| tonic triad | A chord built on the first scale degree, serving as the primary harmonic center and point of rest in a key. |
| triad | A chord whose essence consists of three distinct pitches stacked on adjacent lines or spaces in thirds. |
| upward motion | Melodic movement in which successive pitches ascend in pitch. |
| voice crossing | The inappropriate overlap of pitch ranges between adjacent voices, which should be avoided for clarity of voice leading. |
| voice leading | The technique of moving individual melodic lines (voices) in a musical composition, including considerations for smooth transitions and proper resolution of chords. |
| weak beat | A beat in a measure that receives less emphasis than the downbeat or other strong beats. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What's the difference between parallel motion and similar motion in voice leading?
Parallel motion = both voices move in the same direction (both up or both down) by the same melodic interval (e.g., two voices both move up a perfect fifth). Similar motion = both voices move in the same direction but by different intervals (e.g., soprano rises a second while bass rises a fourth). The CED lists these as two of the four possible voice-leading motions (parallel, similar, oblique, contrary) you should recognize and use (PIT-4.A.2). Why it matters for AP voice leading: parallel perfect fifths or octaves (parallel motion that repeats those exact perfect intervals) are unacceptable—avoid immediately repeating P5s or P8s between the same voices (CED guidance on parallels and perfect intervals). Hidden (direct) fifths/octaves are a related danger when similar motion leads to a perfect interval in outer voices. Review Topic 4.1 on Fiveable for examples (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I write a bass line that doesn't create parallel fifths with the soprano?
First, remember the CED rule: you can’t have consecutive perfect fifths (or octaves) between soprano and bass—that includes beat-to-beat and contrary-motion fifths. On the AP exam that’s a voice-leading error and costs points. Quick practical steps: - Check the interval soprano-to-bass at each chord. If it’s a perfect fifth, don’t move both voices the same distance to another perfect fifth. - Favor contrary or oblique motion between soprano and bass. If one voice stays or moves opposite, parallels are avoided. - Keep common tones in the same voice when possible (PIT-4.A.3). If you must move in similar motion into a perfect interval, make the soprano move by step while the bass leaps—hidden (covered) fifths are only acceptable if the upper voice moves by step. - Use stepwise bass motion and retain chord tones; change the bass note so the interval after the move is not another perfect fifth. - Mind leading-tone resolution in outer voices (must rise by step). Want guided practice? Check the Unit 4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and try problems on Fiveable’s practice page (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I'm confused about what makes a cadence perfect authentic vs imperfect authentic - can someone explain?
Perfect authentic cadence (PAC) vs imperfect authentic cadence (IAC) is basically about how “final” the V–I feels. - Perfect Authentic Cadence (PAC): V → I with both chords in root position AND the soprano ends on scale degree 1 (the tonic). That outer-voice setup (bass on 1 of V then 1 of I, soprano on tonic) gives the strongest sense of closure. The AP CED requires the final cadence to be a PAC for a conclusive ending. - Imperfect Authentic Cadence (IAC): still a V → I progression, but it’s weaker because one of these is true: a chord is inverted (e.g., V6 or I6), or the soprano doesn’t sing tonic (it ends on 3 or 5), or the soprano tone is a nonchord tone. Any of those make the cadence “imperfect.” Tip: when writing outer voices for cadences, keep V and I in root position and put scale degree 1 in the soprano to get a PAC. For extra practice, check the Topic 4.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and try problems on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What intervals are actually allowed when writing melodic lines in 18th century style?
In 18th-century style you should keep melodic motion mostly stepwise and limit which melodic intervals are used. For upper voices (soprano/bass when considered as outer voices) the CED allows: major/minor seconds, major/minor thirds, the perfect fourth, and the perfect fifth. Exclude all melodic augmented/diminished intervals and any melodic leaps larger than a perfect fifth. For bass lines you may use slightly bigger leaps more often: acceptable leaps include 3rds, perfect 4ths and 5ths, 6ths, octaves (with change of direction), and—if properly resolved—a descending diminished fifth. Leading tones in outer voices must resolve up by step and shouldn’t be doubled. Always avoid parallel or direct (hidden) perfect fifths and octaves between outer voices, retain common tones when possible, and keep SATB spacing (no voice crossings). For practice and examples, see the Topic 4.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and more problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I know if my bass line has good melodic interest without breaking voice leading rules?
Good question—you make a bass interesting by combining stepwise motion with purposeful leaps while obeying the CED voice-leading rules. Practically: - Favor stepwise motion and common-tone retention, but add allowed leaps (3rds, P4, P5, 6ths, octaves) that outline triads and change direction after an octave (CED PIT-3.D.1–3). - Use leaps to create shape: mix ascending and descending motion and alternate step/leap patterns so the line “breathes.” - Always check voice-leading constraints: no parallel 5ths/8ves (including successive beats), avoid hidden/direct 5ths/8ves in outer voices, don’t exceed melodic P5, and resolve leading tones in outer voices up by step (CED PIT-4.A.2–4). - Rhythmally, prefer quarter-note feet in chorale style and only repeat bass notes starting on strong beats (RHY-2.C, PIT-3.D.3). - Before finalizing, do quick audits: mark consecutive perfect intervals, scan for >P5 leaps, confirm cadences imply a proper ending (FOR-1.A.2). For examples and practice, see the Topic 4.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W), the Unit 4 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4), and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I don't understand cross relations - what exactly am I supposed to avoid?
A cross-relation is when one voice has a pitch and another voice immediately (or in the next chord) has the same pitch spelled differently (usually chromatically altered)—for example, soprano sings F♮ while alto right after sings F♯ (or vice versa). The CED explicitly warns: “a chromatically inflected pitch may be included as long as the preinflected pitch does not appear in another voice directly preceding the inflected pitch (i.e., avoid a cross relation).” What to avoid/practical fixes: - Don’t put a chromatic neighbor or raised/ lowered scale degree in one outer voice if another voice just had the unaltered same letter pitch. - If you need that chromatic color, change the timing (delay it), keep the preinflected pitch out of other voices, keep it in an inner voice, or respell/revoice so the clash isn’t immediate. - Retain common tones or use stepwise passing tones to smooth the change. On the AP exam this shows up in part-writing and dictation: it’s an error in idiomatic 18th-century voice leading if unresolved or juxtaposed awkwardly. For practice, check the Unit 4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and thousands of practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What's the deal with leading tones and why do they always have to resolve up?
The leading tone (scale degree 7, raised in major/minor) sits a half step below tonic, so it has a strong tendency to “want” to move to 1. In 18th-century voice leading this tendency is treated as a rule: when it appears in an outer voice (soprano or bass) it should resolve up by step to avoid leaving that strong tendency tone sounding unresolved (CED: PIT-4.A.1 and PIT-4.A.3). If it doesn’t resolve upward you get a feeling of incompletion or an unresolved leading tone, especially at cadences (V → I). Also avoid doubling the leading tone in outer voices because that multiplies the unresolved tendency (PIT-4.A.4). Exceptions are stylistic: inner voices may use chromatic or decorative motion, and later styles break the rule, but for AP part-writing and chorale style you should always resolve an outer-voice leading tone up by step. For guided practice and examples, see the Topic 4.1 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and try problems at Fiveable practice (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
How do I analyze Roman numerals when the bass line implies weird chord inversions?
Start by treating every written bass note as a legitimate harmonic clue—your Roman numerals must account for all given pitches (CED PIT-2.F.1). Steps that help: 1. Check key and scale degree of the bass: does it function as root, third, or fifth of a triad? Label inversion with Arabic numerals (root = no numeral, 6 = first inversion, 6/4 = second). 2. Test the soprano and inner voices: can they form a complete triad with the bass pitch, or is one tone nonharmonic (passing, neighbor, suspension)? If a soprano note is a nonchord tone, don’t force a weird inversion—an ordinary Roman numeral plus a nonharmonic label is better. 3. Watch for special 6/4 uses (cadential, passing, pedal). A bass on scale degree 1 with upper voices outlining V is often a cadential 6/4—analyze as I 6/4 (cad.) → V. 4. Remember voice-leading norms (common-tone retention, leading-tone resolution, avoid doubled leading tone) when you justify an odd doubling or omitted factor (CED PIT-4.A.1, PIT-4.A.3). For more worked examples and AP-style practice, see the Topic 4.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and the unit practice bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
Can I use repeated notes in my bass line or is that always wrong?
Short answer: Yes—repeated bass notes can be correct, but they’re limited by 18th-century voice-leading conventions. Why: The CED allows repeated bass notes only when they begin on a strong beat. An exception: if the repeated note starts on a weak beat at the start of a phrase or the second occurrence is a suspension, it’s also acceptable (PIT-3.D.3, PIT-2.E.1). Because the bass implies harmony, repeated bass notes must still make harmonic sense (all soprano notes must fit the implied chords) and should support clear cadences and phrase structure (FOR-1.A.1, PIT-2.E.1). Rhythmically, chorale basses usually favor quarter-note motion rather than long stretches of identical values (RHY-2.C.1). If you want more examples and practice, check the Topic 4.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and the 1,000+ practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What materials do I need to practice soprano-bass counterpoint exercises effectively?
You only need a few targeted materials to practice soprano–bass counterpoint well: - Staff paper or music-notation software (MuseScore, Finale, Sibelius) to write exercises and part-writing clearly. - A keyboard or piano (real or virtual) to hear harmonic implications and test inversions and leading-tone resolutions. - A metronome for chorale-style bass rhythms (quarter-note pulse) and cadence practice. - CED/score examples: print or view AP-style figured-bass and soprano prompts so you follow PIT-4.A and PIT-2.E rules (common-tone retention, avoiding parallel 5ths/8ves, correct leading-tone resolution). - Roman-numeral/analysis cheat sheet and a reference for nonchord tones and cadences. - Recordings or a partner for aural practice (dictation and sight-singing help meet PIT-3.G). For guided practice and AP-style drills, use the Topic 4.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and the 1,000+ practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
My voice leading always sounds choppy - how do I make it smoother while following all the rules?
If your soprano–bass lines sound choppy, focus on smoothing linear motion while obeying AP voice-leading rules. Practical steps: - Keep mostly stepwise motion in both outer voices; limit leaps (bass can use more leaps but follow PIT-3.D.2). - Retain common tones between adjacent chords whenever possible—it creates continuity (PIT-4.A.3). - Favor contrary or oblique motion between soprano and bass; avoid similar motion into perfect fifths/octaves and watch for hidden/direct 5ths and 8ves in outer voices (CED rules). - Resolve tendency tones correctly: leading tones in outer voices must ascend by step to tonic (PIT-4.A.3). - Use passing and neighbor tones to connect chord tones smoothly; plan cadences so phrase endings imply appropriate progressions (FOR-1.A.2). Practice by writing a bass under a given soprano, keeping SATB spacing and chorale bass rhythm (quarter-note emphasis). For more guided examples and exercises, see the Topic 4.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and thousands of practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
I'm working on my portfolio and need help with error detection in counterpoint - what should I focus on?
When you’re hunting errors in soprano–bass counterpoint, check these things in order—quick, high-impact wins: - Perfect intervals: spot parallel or immediate consecutive P5/P8 and hidden (direct) or unequal fifth/octave problems between outer voices (these cost big points in AP scoring). - Voice-leading basics: keep mostly stepwise motion in upper voices, allow bass leaps (3rds, 4ths, 5ths, 6ths, octaves) but follow the CED limits. - Leading tones & tendency tones: if the leading tone’s in soprano or bass, it must resolve up by step. Don’t double the leading tone. - Spelling/spacing/doubling: SATB order, close position for upper parts, no doubled sevenths or improper 6-4 doublings (cadential 6-4 must resolve). - Common tones & melodic flow: retain common tones when possible; avoid voice crossing/overlap; reject melodic intervals > P5 or augmented/diminished melodic intervals. - Harmonic sense & cadence: make sure soprano notes fit implied chords and phrase endings imply acceptable cadence (final must be PAC). - Cross-relations & chromaticism: avoid immediate cross-relations between voices. For targeted practice and AP-style error examples, use the Topic 4.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W), the Unit 4 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4), and hundreds of practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
What's the difference between close position and open position spacing and when do I use each?
Close position: all upper voices (soprano, alto, tenor) are packed as tightly as the chord tones allow—usually within one octave between adjacent upper parts. Open position: any spacing that isn’t close (tones are spread out; you might put the tenor an octave lower, or widen the gaps between upper voices). When to use: default to close spacing for clarity and smooth voice-leading in chorale-style part-writing (it keeps common tones close and makes stepwise motion easier). Use open spacing when needed for range or balance (e.g., the tenor would be too high in close position, or you want a fuller, orchestral texture), or to avoid awkward leaps. On the AP part-writing task, continue logically from the given spacing (the exam often instructs you to keep the first chord’s spacing). Also avoid more than an octave between adjacent upper voices when possible (scoring deducts for excessive spacing). For extra practice see the Topic 4.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and Unit 4 resources (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4).
How do I write a bass line that creates strong harmonic progressions with just I, ii, IV, and V chords?
Start by thinking functionally: use I, ii, IV, V to outline strong root-position progressions (I→ii→V→I, I→IV→V→I, or I→ii→IV→V). In the bass keep mostly stepwise motion and common-tone retention—hold any chord tones that appear in both chords. Favor contrary motion with the soprano to avoid parallels and hidden/direct perfect fifths/octaves in outer voices. Use leaps in the bass only to outline triads (3rds, 4ths, 5ths, 6ths, octaves) and follow octave leaps with direction change. Place repeated bass notes only on strong beats (or at phrase start on a weak beat). At phrase endings imply proper cadences (most phrases should lead to a V–I and the final cadence must be a perfect authentic cadence per the CED). Resolve tendency tones—leading tones in the bass/soprano must ascend to tonic. For practice and examples tied to AP requirements, see the Topic 4.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and more exercises at the Unit 4 page (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4) or the practice problem bank (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).
Why can't I use augmented intervals in my melodic lines and what counts as too big of a leap?
Augmented (or diminished) melodic intervals and very large leaps sound odd in 18th-century voice leading, so the CED forbids them for outer voices: they create uncharacteristic dissonances and break linear smoothness (PIT-4.A.3). For soprano/bass lines you should stick to m2, M2, m3, M3, P4, and P5. Anything larger than a perfect fifth is “too big” for outer voices—augmented/diminished intervals and leaps > P5 are not allowed. Exceptions: the bass may use bigger leaps more often (thirds, P4, P5, sixths, octaves) and a descending diminished fifth can appear if resolved properly; octave leaps in the bass should change direction afterward (PIT-3.D). Also remember tendency tones (leading tones in outer voices) must resolve by step. For practice and examples, see the Unit 4 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/music-theory/unit-4/harmony-voice-leading-i/study-guide/0m8OiGeqjebWSd6bMZ0W) and try related practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/music-theory).