16.3 Human Activities and International Cooperation
5 min read•july 30, 2024
The and are hotspots of human activity and international cooperation. From in the Arctic to in Antarctica, these regions showcase unique human adaptations to extreme environments. Economic interests, , and environmental concerns shape the complex dynamics of polar regions.
International agreements like the and play crucial roles in managing these areas. These frameworks promote scientific collaboration, , and peaceful cooperation among nations, balancing economic interests with conservation efforts in these fragile ecosystems.
Human Presence in Polar Regions
Indigenous Populations in the Arctic
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- The Arctic has been inhabited by various indigenous groups for thousands of years, including the Inuit, Aleut, Sami, and Yakut peoples who have adapted their lifestyles and cultures to the harsh polar environment
- Indigenous populations in the Arctic rely on hunting, , and reindeer herding for subsistence with traditional knowledge and practices, such as the use of animal skins for clothing and shelter, being essential for survival in the polar regions
- European exploration of the Arctic began in the 16th century, with expeditions seeking the Northwest Passage and the North Pole led by famous explorers such as William Barents, Henry Hudson, and Robert Peary
Human Presence in Antarctica
- The Antarctic has no indigenous populations due to its extreme climate and isolation with human presence limited to scientific research stations and temporary visits by tourists
- The Antarctic Treaty System, established in 1959, designates the continent as a scientific preserve and prohibits military activities, demonstrating international cooperation in the region with the treaty signed by 54 nations
Economic Activities in Polar Regions
Resource Extraction in the Arctic
- The Arctic is rich in , including oil, natural gas, minerals (gold, silver, copper, rare earth elements), and fish, which have become more accessible due to the melting of sea ice caused by climate change, leading to increased economic interest in the region
- Oil and in the Arctic has been controversial due to the potential environmental impacts and the challenges of operating in the harsh polar environment with major reserves discovered in the Arctic regions of Russia, Norway, and Alaska
- in the Arctic include the extraction of gold, silver, copper, and rare earth elements, such as the Kiruna iron ore mine in Sweden, one of the largest underground mines in the world
- Fishing is a significant economic activity in the Arctic, with the Barents Sea and the Bering Sea being important fishing grounds that require international cooperation to ensure sustainability of fish stocks
Tourism in Polar Regions
- in the Arctic has grown in recent years, with visitors drawn to the region's unique landscapes, wildlife (polar bears, whales, seals), and indigenous cultures through activities such as wildlife viewing, hiking, and cruises
- The Northwest Passage and the Northeast Passage have become more accessible to cruise ships due to the melting of sea ice, raising concerns about the environmental impact of increased tourism in the Arctic
- Tourism in the Antarctic is regulated by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) to minimize the environmental impact, with tourists primarily visiting the Antarctic Peninsula for activities such as wildlife viewing (penguins, seals, whales), hiking, and educational tours
Geopolitical Importance of the Arctic
Territorial Claims and International Law
- The Arctic has gained due to its strategic location, natural resources, and the potential for new as sea ice melts, making the region a "new frontier" for international relations
- The (UNCLOS) governs the territorial claims in the Arctic, granting coastal states the right to claim an (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles from their coastline
- The five (Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, and the United States) have competing territorial claims in the region based on factors such as the extent of their continental shelves and the presence of islands
Strategic Interests and Cooperation in the Arctic
- Russia has been particularly assertive in its Arctic claims, focusing on securing its economic and in the region, as exemplified by the 2007 Russian expedition that planted a flag on the seabed at the North Pole
- The melting of sea ice has the potential to open up new shipping routes in the Arctic, such as the Northwest Passage and the Northern Sea Route, which could significantly reduce the distance and time required for shipping between Europe and Asia, but their use remains controversial due to environmental and safety concerns
- The Arctic Council, established in 1996, is an intergovernmental forum that promotes cooperation and coordination among the Arctic states, focusing on issues such as , environmental protection, and the well-being of Arctic inhabitants
International Cooperation in Polar Regions
Antarctic Treaty System and Environmental Protection
- The Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) is a set of international agreements that govern activities in the Antarctic, with the main treaty, signed in 1959, designating the continent as a scientific preserve and prohibiting military activities
- The , adopted in 1991, provides comprehensive protection for the Antarctic environment and prohibits mining activities on the continent
- The Convention for the Conservation of (CCAMLR) manages and conserves the marine ecosystems in the Southern Ocean surrounding Antarctica
Arctic Cooperation and Scientific Research
- The Arctic Council is the primary intergovernmental forum for cooperation and coordination among the Arctic states, focusing on issues such as sustainable development, environmental protection, and the well-being of Arctic inhabitants
- The (AEPS), adopted in 1991, addresses environmental challenges in the Arctic and promotes sustainable development in the region
- The , signed in 2017, aims to facilitate scientific research and knowledge sharing among the Arctic states
- The (IASC) is a non-governmental organization that promotes and facilitates international cooperation in Arctic research by coordinating research projects and facilitating the exchange of scientific information among its member countries
Other International Agreements and Organizations
- The , signed in 1920, recognizes Norwegian sovereignty over the Svalbard archipelago but grants equal rights to the treaty's signatories for commercial activities on the islands while also establishing Svalbard as a demilitarized zone
- The (IWC) is an international body that regulates whaling activities and has established a moratorium on commercial whaling, with some exceptions for indigenous subsistence whaling in the Arctic
- The (UNFCCC) and the are international efforts to address climate change, which has a significant impact on the polar regions, aiming to limit global temperature rise and promote adaptation and resilience to the impacts of climate change
Key Terms to Review (32)
Agreement on Enhancing International Arctic Scientific Cooperation: The Agreement on Enhancing International Arctic Scientific Cooperation is a multilateral framework designed to promote collaboration among Arctic states in scientific research and data sharing related to the Arctic region. This agreement is crucial as it facilitates cooperative efforts to address the challenges of climate change, environmental preservation, and sustainable development in the Arctic, which is increasingly important due to global warming and geopolitical interests.
Antarctic Marine Living Resources: Antarctic marine living resources refer to the various forms of life found in the Southern Ocean, which surrounds Antarctica, including fish, krill, and other marine organisms that are crucial for the ecosystem and human activities. The management and conservation of these resources are vital to ensure their sustainability, highlighting the importance of international cooperation in regulating fishing practices and protecting marine biodiversity in this unique environment.
Antarctic Treaty System: The Antarctic Treaty System is a collection of international agreements that govern the management and use of Antarctica, established in 1961 to promote peaceful cooperation and scientific research in the region. This system is significant as it emphasizes international collaboration and environmental protection while prohibiting military activity and mineral mining on the continent.
Antarctica: Antarctica is the southernmost continent, containing the geographic South Pole, and is known for its vast ice sheets and extreme cold. It plays a significant role in global climate regulation, ocean currents, and is characterized by its unique geography and ecosystem, influencing human activities and international collaboration.
Arctic: The Arctic is a polar region located at the northernmost part of Earth, characterized by its extreme cold, ice-covered landscapes, and unique ecosystems. This region plays a vital role in global climate regulation, and its physical characteristics influence weather patterns far beyond its boundaries, impacting ecosystems and human activities around the world.
Arctic Coastal States: Arctic coastal states are nations that have a coastline along the Arctic Ocean, specifically including Canada, Denmark (via Greenland), Norway, Russia, and the United States. These countries play a significant role in international cooperation regarding the governance of Arctic resources, environmental protection, and territorial claims as climate change opens new shipping routes and access to untapped natural resources in the region.
Arctic Council: The Arctic Council is a high-level intergovernmental forum established in 1996 to promote cooperation, coordination, and interaction among Arctic states, indigenous communities, and other Arctic inhabitants. It focuses on sustainable development and environmental protection in the Arctic region, highlighting the importance of international cooperation in addressing challenges such as climate change, resource management, and geopolitical tensions.
Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy: The Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS) is a framework established in 1991 to address environmental issues in the Arctic region and promote sustainable development. It emphasizes international cooperation among Arctic states and indigenous communities, aiming to protect the unique ecosystems and cultures in the face of growing human activities such as shipping, resource extraction, and climate change.
Environmental Protection: Environmental protection refers to the practices and policies aimed at safeguarding the natural environment from degradation, pollution, and harm caused by human activities. It involves regulatory measures, conservation efforts, and sustainable resource management to ensure the health and resilience of ecosystems. By addressing environmental challenges, it aims to promote a balance between economic development and the preservation of the planet for future generations.
Exclusive Economic Zone: An exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is a maritime area, typically extending 200 nautical miles from a coastal state's baseline, where the state has special rights to explore and exploit natural resources, including fish and minerals. The EEZ allows a country to control economic activities while still adhering to international laws governing the high seas, establishing a balance between national interests and global cooperation in resource management.
Fishing: Fishing is the practice of catching fish for food, recreation, or trade, involving various techniques and equipment. This activity has deep roots in many cultures and economies, often serving as a primary source of sustenance and livelihood. The cultural significance of fishing is intertwined with traditional practices and colonial impacts, influencing both indigenous communities and global trade systems.
Gas exploration: Gas exploration refers to the process of searching for natural gas reserves beneath the Earth's surface, typically involving geological surveys, seismic studies, and drilling operations. This activity is crucial for identifying viable sources of natural gas, which plays a significant role in energy production and economic development.
Geopolitical importance: Geopolitical importance refers to the significance of a location or region based on its political, economic, and strategic value in international relations. This term encompasses how geography affects political decisions and alliances, influencing trade routes, military strategies, and diplomatic relations among countries.
Indigenous populations: Indigenous populations refer to the original inhabitants of a particular region, often characterized by distinct cultural identities, languages, and traditional practices that have developed over centuries. These communities typically have a deep connection to their ancestral lands and ecosystems, which shapes their way of life. The recognition and rights of indigenous populations are increasingly important in discussions about human activities and international cooperation, as these groups often face challenges related to land rights, cultural preservation, and environmental sustainability.
International Arctic Science Committee: The International Arctic Science Committee (IASC) is an organization that promotes international cooperation in Arctic research. Established in 1990, it aims to facilitate collaboration among scientists and researchers from different countries to address the complex challenges posed by climate change and other environmental issues affecting the Arctic region. The IASC plays a vital role in fostering joint projects, sharing knowledge, and coordinating research efforts in the Arctic, thereby highlighting the importance of collaborative scientific inquiry in this ecologically sensitive area.
International law: International law refers to a set of rules and principles that govern relations between sovereign states and other international actors. It encompasses treaties, customary practices, and legal principles that help maintain peace, security, and cooperation among nations. This framework is essential for addressing global issues such as human rights, environmental protection, and conflict resolution, fostering collaboration on a range of human activities.
International Whaling Commission: The International Whaling Commission (IWC) is an intergovernmental organization established in 1946 to regulate whaling and conserve whale populations worldwide. The IWC aims to ensure the sustainable use of whale resources while balancing the interests of whaling nations and conservation efforts, reflecting a key aspect of international cooperation in managing global marine resources.
Madrid Protocol: The Madrid Protocol is an international treaty that governs the protection of the Antarctic environment, particularly focusing on the conservation of its ecosystems and the management of human activities on the continent. Established in 1991 as an extension of the Antarctic Treaty, it emphasizes the importance of preserving Antarctica for scientific research and environmental protection, while facilitating international cooperation among nations involved in Antarctic activities.
Mining activities: Mining activities refer to the processes involved in extracting valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth. This includes various methods such as surface mining, underground mining, and placer mining, and plays a significant role in the economy by providing essential resources for construction, energy, and manufacturing industries.
Natural resources: Natural resources are materials and components that can be found within the environment, which are utilized by humans for various purposes such as economic development, energy production, and sustaining life. These resources can be renewable, like solar energy and timber, or non-renewable, such as fossil fuels and minerals. Their availability and management play a crucial role in shaping economies and fostering international cooperation.
Oil exploration: Oil exploration is the process of searching for oil reserves beneath the Earth's surface, involving various techniques such as geological surveys, seismic testing, and drilling. This activity plays a critical role in the global economy and energy sector, influencing international relations, environmental policies, and economic development in oil-rich regions.
Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change that was adopted by nearly every country in 2015, with the aim of limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. It emphasizes the need for countries to commit to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting sustainable development, highlighting the interconnectedness of nations in tackling climate change and its effects.
Resource extraction: Resource extraction refers to the process of removing natural resources from the environment for use in production and consumption. This includes activities such as mining, drilling, logging, and fishing, which play a vital role in the economy but can also lead to environmental degradation. The balance between utilizing these resources and protecting the environment often requires international cooperation to establish sustainable practices.
Scientific research: Scientific research refers to the systematic investigation and study of materials, phenomena, and theories to develop or enhance knowledge, often employing methodologies such as experimentation, observation, and analysis. This process is essential for understanding human activities and their impact on the environment, as well as fostering international cooperation to address global challenges.
Shipping routes: Shipping routes are the designated paths or channels used by cargo ships and vessels to transport goods across oceans and waterways. These routes are vital for international trade and are influenced by factors like geography, weather patterns, and geopolitical relationships, emphasizing the need for cooperation between nations to ensure safe and efficient maritime transport.
Strategic interests: Strategic interests refer to the goals and objectives that countries pursue to maintain or enhance their security, economic well-being, and global influence. These interests often shape foreign policy decisions and international relations, driving nations to cooperate or compete with one another based on perceived benefits and threats. Understanding strategic interests is essential for analyzing human activities that lead to international cooperation or conflict.
Sustainable development: Sustainable development is a holistic approach to economic growth that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It balances economic, social, and environmental objectives, ensuring that resources are used responsibly and conserved for the long term.
Svalbard Treaty: The Svalbard Treaty, signed in 1920, is an international agreement that recognizes Norway's sovereignty over the Svalbard archipelago while ensuring equal rights for all signatory countries to exploit its natural resources. This treaty is significant for promoting international cooperation and regulating human activities in this unique Arctic region, allowing for scientific research and resource management amidst rising geopolitical interest due to climate change and melting ice.
Territorial claims: Territorial claims refer to assertions of ownership or control over specific geographic areas by a state or other entity. These claims can arise from historical ties, cultural significance, economic interests, or legal justifications, often leading to disputes among nations or groups. Understanding territorial claims is essential to grasping the complexities of human activities, international law, and cooperation in resolving conflicts over land.
Tourism: Tourism is the act of traveling to different destinations for leisure, business, or other purposes, contributing significantly to the economy and cultural exchange. It often involves visiting natural landmarks, cultural sites, and participating in recreational activities, which can greatly impact local communities and economies.
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is an international treaty that was adopted in 1982 to establish a comprehensive legal framework for the use and conservation of the world's oceans and marine resources. It governs various maritime issues such as territorial waters, exclusive economic zones, navigation rights, and marine environmental protection, facilitating cooperation among nations in managing human activities that impact the oceans.
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international treaty established in 1992 aimed at addressing the challenges posed by climate change through cooperation among countries. It provides a framework for negotiating specific agreements, including the Paris Agreement, focusing on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and promoting sustainable development. The convention emphasizes the importance of international collaboration to mitigate climate change effects and adapt to its impacts.