15.4 Cross-linguistic studies of semantic universals and variation
3 min read•july 19, 2024
Semantic universals and variation across languages reveal fascinating patterns in how we communicate and perceive the world. From color terms to , languages share common ground while also exhibiting unique features that reflect cultural differences.
The relationship between language, thought, and culture is a complex and intriguing area of study. Research in this field explores how our native tongue might shape our perception, cognition, and worldview, shedding light on the intricate connections between words and minds.
Semantic Universals and Variation
Semantic universals across languages
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- 's study (1969) found a universal hierarchy in color term acquisition across languages
- All languages have terms for black and white (achromatic colors)
- If a language has three color terms, it includes red (first chromatic color)
- Languages with more color terms follow a specific order of addition: yellow, green, blue, brown, purple, pink, orange, grey
- 's study (1969) found a universal hierarchy in color term acquisition across languages
- Kinship systems
- Kinship terms often distinguish between lineal relatives (direct ancestors or descendants) and collateral relatives (related through a common ancestor)
- Lineal relatives include parents, grandparents, and children
- Collateral relatives include siblings, cousins, aunts, and uncles
- Kinship terms may also differentiate between maternal relatives (mother's side) and paternal relatives (father's side)
- Kinship terms often distinguish between lineal relatives (direct ancestors or descendants) and collateral relatives (related through a common ancestor)
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- Languages typically have terms for basic spatial concepts expressing relationships between objects
- Proximity indicates the distance between objects (near, far)
- Containment describes whether an object is inside or outside another (in, out)
- Support refers to an object being on top of or underneath another (on, under)
- Vertical orientation specifies the position of an object along a vertical axis (up, down)
- Horizontal orientation specifies the position of an object along a horizontal plane (front, back, left, right)
- Languages typically have terms for basic spatial concepts expressing relationships between objects
Semantic variation between languages
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- Some languages have grammatical gender systems that classify nouns into categories (masculine, feminine, neuter)
- The assignment of nouns to gender categories can vary across languages
- The word "sun" is masculine in Spanish (el sol), feminine in German (die Sonne), and neuter in Russian (солнце)
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- Evidentiality refers to the grammatical marking of information source in a language
- Some languages have obligatory evidential markers indicating how the speaker obtained the information
- In Quechua, the suffix -mi indicates direct evidence (firsthand experience), while -si indicates reported information (hearsay)
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- Languages vary in their numeral systems and the way they combine numbers
- Decimal systems based on powers of ten (base 10) are common, but other bases like vigesimal (base 20) and sexagesimal (base 60) exist
- Some languages have more complex numeral systems
- Oksapmin (Papua New Guinea) uses a body-part counting system, where body parts represent numbers (nose for 1, eyes for 2, etc.)
- Languages vary in their numeral systems and the way they combine numbers
Language, Thought, and Culture
Language, thought, and culture relationships
- () proposes a connection between language and cognition
- The strong version suggests that language determines thought and perception
- The weak version proposes that language influences thought and perception
- investigate whether the presence or absence of specific color terms affects color perception and categorization
- research explores how differences in spatial language (absolute vs. relative frames of reference) may influence spatial reasoning and navigation abilities
- Numeral systems and studies examine how differences in numeral systems (regular vs. irregular) may affect numerical processing and mental arithmetic skills
Cross-linguistic studies in semantics
- Berlin and Kay's study on color terms (1969)
- Methodology: Collected color term data from 20 languages and analyzed their distribution and evolution
- Findings: Identified a universal hierarchy in color term acquisition across languages
- Criticism: Limited language sample, potential influence of cultural contact and industrialization
- and colleagues' study on spatial language and cognition (2002)
- Methodology: Compared spatial language and spatial reasoning tasks across languages with different frames of reference
- Findings: Speakers of languages with different spatial frames of reference performed differently on non-linguistic spatial tasks, supporting the idea that language influences spatial cognition
- 's study on numerical cognition in Pirahã (2004)
- Methodology: Tested numerical cognition in Pirahã, a language with a limited numeral system (one, two, many)
- Findings: Pirahã speakers had difficulty with exact arithmetic and memory for large numbers, suggesting a link between language and numerical cognition
- Alternative explanations such as cultural factors should also be considered
Key Terms to Review (20)
Basic color terms: Basic color terms are words that describe distinct colors and are universally recognized across languages, typically covering the primary colors like red, blue, and green, as well as some secondary colors. These terms help establish a shared understanding of color across different cultures and languages, highlighting both the similarities and variations in how color is perceived and categorized around the world.
Berlin and Kay: Berlin and Kay refer to two linguists, Paul Berlin and Brent Kay, who are known for their influential work on color terminology and the study of semantic universals. Their research proposed that there are universal patterns in how languages categorize colors, suggesting that all human languages contain certain basic color terms that can be classified in a predictable way. This research has significant implications for understanding semantic variation across languages and how humans perceive and describe colors.
Color perception studies: Color perception studies investigate how different cultures and languages perceive and categorize colors. These studies reveal important insights into semantic universals, showing how color terminology can vary significantly across languages while still maintaining some commonalities in basic color categories.
Comparative Method: The comparative method is a linguistic technique used to study the similarities and differences between languages to uncover their historical relationships and develop theories about language evolution. By systematically comparing the phonetic, morphological, and syntactic features of different languages, researchers can identify patterns that reveal semantic universals and variations across languages.
Cross-linguistic analysis: Cross-linguistic analysis is the comparative study of different languages to identify similarities and differences in their semantic structures and usage. This approach helps linguists understand how meaning is constructed across various languages, revealing both semantic universals—features common to all languages—and variations that illustrate cultural and contextual influences on language use.
Cross-linguistic studies: Cross-linguistic studies involve comparing and analyzing linguistic phenomena across different languages to identify patterns, similarities, and differences. These studies help researchers understand how language functions universally and how it varies from one language to another, shedding light on semantic universals and the ways in which meaning can differ across cultures.
English vs. Mandarin: English and Mandarin are two distinct languages that represent different linguistic systems, each with unique semantic structures and cultural contexts. These differences play a crucial role in cross-linguistic studies, highlighting how semantics can vary and what universal concepts may be present across languages.
Evidentiality: Evidentiality refers to the linguistic marking of the source and reliability of information in communication. It involves how speakers indicate the evidence for their claims, whether it is based on direct experience, hearsay, or inference. This concept is crucial for understanding how different languages encode information about the reliability and type of evidence that supports statements, thereby highlighting variation in linguistic expressions across cultures.
Gordon: Gordon refers to a theory proposed by M. J. Gordon that focuses on the investigation of semantic universals and how these concepts vary across different languages. This theory seeks to identify underlying patterns and commonalities in meaning among diverse languages, which can help linguists understand how language shapes thought and culture.
Grammatical Gender: Grammatical gender is a linguistic classification system that assigns nouns to categories, typically referred to as masculine, feminine, and neuter. This classification affects agreement in language, influencing the forms of adjectives, articles, and verbs based on the gender of the noun. Grammatical gender varies across languages, highlighting both semantic universals and significant variations in how different cultures perceive and categorize nouns.
Kinship systems: Kinship systems are the social structures that define family relationships and inheritance patterns within a culture. They help organize individuals into networks of relatedness and can influence social roles, behaviors, and identities. Understanding kinship systems is essential for studying how different cultures interpret relationships, family ties, and societal norms, which varies significantly across languages and communities.
Levinson: Levinson refers to the influential work of Stephen C. Levinson, a prominent linguist known for his research on the interplay between language and cognition, particularly in the area of semantic universals and variation across languages. His studies provide insights into how different cultures encode meanings and categorize their experiences, leading to a deeper understanding of linguistic diversity and universality.
Linguistic relativity: Linguistic relativity is the idea that the structure and vocabulary of a language can influence how its speakers perceive and think about the world. This concept suggests that speakers of different languages may experience reality differently based on the linguistic categories available to them, leading to variations in cognition and understanding. By examining semantic universals and variations across languages, this idea highlights the intricate relationship between language, thought, and culture.
Numeral systems: Numeral systems are structured methods for expressing numbers and quantities using symbols or digits. They can vary significantly across languages and cultures, showcasing both semantic universals and variations in how people conceptualize and communicate numerical information.
Numerical cognition: Numerical cognition refers to the mental processes involved in understanding, processing, and manipulating numbers. This concept encompasses how individuals perceive quantities, understand numerical concepts, and perform mathematical operations. It plays a significant role in how different languages and cultures express numerical ideas, revealing variations in cognitive frameworks across linguistic backgrounds.
Quechua vs. Pirahã: Quechua and Pirahã are two distinct languages that represent significant examples in the study of linguistic variation and semantic universals. Quechua, primarily spoken in the Andean region, has a rich vocabulary for colors and kinship terms, while Pirahã, spoken by an indigenous tribe in the Amazon rainforest, exhibits a much simpler structure and fewer color terms. These languages provide insight into how different cultures influence language structure and semantics.
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that the language one speaks influences the way one thinks and perceives the world. This concept highlights the relationship between linguistic categories and cognitive processes, indicating that speakers of different languages may experience and interpret reality differently based on their linguistic structures.
Spanish vs. German: The comparison of Spanish and German examines the differences and similarities in their semantic structures, vocabulary, and pragmatic usage. By analyzing these two languages, researchers can identify semantic universals—features common across languages—and variations that highlight unique linguistic characteristics shaped by cultural contexts.
Spatial cognition: Spatial cognition refers to the processes by which individuals perceive, remember, and think about spatial relationships in their environment. This involves understanding how objects relate to one another in space and how to navigate through that space. The study of spatial cognition can reveal important insights into how different languages and cultures express and conceptualize space, which ties into broader themes of semantic universals and variation.
Spatial relations: Spatial relations refer to the ways in which objects are positioned or oriented in space relative to one another. This concept plays a vital role in understanding how languages express the relationships between entities, including their locations, distances, and directions. The study of spatial relations can reveal significant insights into semantic universals and the variations that exist across different languages.