Fiveable
Fiveable

or

Log in

Find what you need to study


Light

Find what you need to study

1.5 Structure and Function of Biological Macromolecules

7 min readdecember 30, 2022

Danna Esther Gelfand

Danna Esther Gelfand

Jed Quiaoit

Jed Quiaoit

Danna Esther Gelfand

Danna Esther Gelfand

Jed Quiaoit

Jed Quiaoit

Four Types of Macromolecules: A Refresher

There are four main types of macromolecules: , , , and . These macromolecules are the building blocks of cells and perform a wide range of functions in living organisms.

are made up of nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphate groups, and they carry genetic information. There are two types of : (deoxyribonucleic acid) and (ribonucleic acid). stores genetic information, while carries out the instructions of and helps to synthesize . 🧬

are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, and they serve as a source of energy and structural support in cells. Examples of include sugars, starches, and . 🍩

are large, complex molecules made up of , and they perform a wide range of functions in cells, including catalyzing chemical reactions, transporting molecules, and providing structural support. can be found in all cells and tissues, and they play a key role in many processes within the body. 🥩

are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, and they are important for energy storage and cell membrane structure. Examples of include fats, oils, and phospholipids. 😁

Structure Determines Function

The subunits, or monomers, that make up a polymer play a crucial role in determining the structure and function of the macromolecule. The directionality of the monomers, or the way in which they are arranged and bonded together, can affect the overall shape and conformation of the polymer.

For example, in a protein, the primary structure refers to the specific sequence of that make up the protein, and this sequence determines the three-dimensional structure of the protein, or its tertiary structure. The tertiary structure, in turn, determines the protein's function. Similarly, the arrangement of monomers in a carbohydrate or a nucleic acid can affect the structure and function of the polymer.

Nucleic Acids

, such as and , are long, linear polymers made up of nucleotide monomers. The nucleotides in and are linked together through covalent bonds between the sugar and phosphate groups of adjacent nucleotides. The sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid molecule is important because it carries the genetic information that is used to build and maintain living organisms.

The sequence is read in a specific direction, starting at the 5' end and ending at the 3' end. This directionality is important because it determines the sequence of nucleotides that will be synthesized during replication and transcription.

During these processes, nucleotides are added to the 3' end of the growing strand by a process called , which involves the formation of a between the 3' of one nucleotide and the 5' of the next nucleotide.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-HElIOqmLjfu7.jpg?alt=media&token=83dfe3e4-3674-4fbf-b913-04608a0bad95

Image courtesy of Lumen Learning

Likewise, is a double-stranded helical molecule that is composed of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides that are held together by between the bases.

The molecule is shaped like a twisted ladder, with the sugar-phosphate backbone forming the sides of the ladder and the bases forming the rungs. The strands are oriented in opposite directions, with one strand running from the 5' end to the 3' end and the other strand running from the 3' end to the 5' end. This antiparallel orientation of the strands is important for the stability of the molecule and for its role in genetic information storage and transfer.

The bases in are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). These bases are held together by , with A pairing with T through two and C pairing with G through three . This base pairing is specific and complementary, and it ensures the stability of the molecule and the accuracy of genetic information transfer.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-EOvT2mt8dLVV.jpeg?alt=media&token=0afb5e97-4b71-456d-8946-5dc0a3019022

Image courtesy of BioNinja

Proteins

are linear polymers made up of that are linked together by peptide bonds. A peptide bond is a that is formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid. The formation of a peptide bond results in the release of a molecule of water, and this process is called peptide bond formation or peptide bond synthesis.

The sequence of in a protein is called the primary structure of the protein, and it is determined by the sequence of the nucleotides in the gene that encodes the protein. The primary structure of a protein is important because it determines the three-dimensional structure of the protein, or its tertiary structure, which in turn determines the protein's function.

Varied functions of include, but are not limited to: structural, catalytic, signaling, defense, and transport within cells. Functioning as: enzymes, hormones, storage, transport (through membranes), defense , and receptor .

Levels of Protein Structure

  1. Primary Structure – a sequence of , peptide bonds.

  2. Secondary Structure– the result of hydrogen bonding between the components of the polypeptide backbone, the carboxyl and amino functional groups along the peptide chain-forming or

  3. Tertiary Structure – the result of interactions between the alpha-helix and Beta pleated sheet (interactions of the same polypeptide chain) (, hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, , etc. cause its formation).

  4. Quaternary Structure – interactions between two or more polypeptide chains forming the multi-subunit protein. (common examples you will come across: polymerase, )

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2Ffigure-03-04-09.jpg?alt=media&token=578cc4f9-cdac-4bc4-bb3a-65d979de5442

Image courtesy of Lumen Learning.

Denaturation

is a process that occurs when lose their tertiary structure, which is the three-dimensional arrangement of their amino acid residues, due to the disruption of the non-covalent interactions that hold the protein in its native conformation. This can be caused by various factors such as heat, pH changes, and the presence of certain chemicals or enzymes.

can result in the loss of the protein's biological activity, which is why it is considered an inactive form of protein. Note that this process is different from hydrolysis, which is the breaking down of into smaller peptides or by the action of water or enzymes.

💡 Important connections to other units: , an inherited blood disorder is caused by a single amino acid substitution in the protein .

Species that share a common ancestor have some similar structured and their correspond to each other.

Carbohydrates

Simple , also known as , contain a single sugar unit, while complex , also known as , contain multiple sugar units linked together.

Linear are those that have a straight chain of sugar units, while branched have branches coming off of the main chain. The structure of a carbohydrate can affect its physical and chemical properties, as well as its function in the body.

https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-zbCAi5xYv5io.png?alt=media&token=726316e1-49e3-489d-9ca1-b189e2ed4e8b

Image courtesy of ResearchGate

play important roles in many biological processes, including energy metabolism, cell communication, and structure and function of cells and tissues. They are also an important source of energy for the body, providing fuel for the brain, muscles, and other organs.

Other Things of Notable Importance

More About Carbs: Disaccharides and Polysaccharides

Disaccharide – two joined together by a , formed through dehydration synthesis (Di – two).

Most Common Disaccharides

  • - disaccharide of two glucose combined together by dehydration synthesis.

  • - disaccharide of glucose monosaccharide and a fructose monosaccharide combined together by dehydration synthesis.

  • - disaccharide of glucose monosaccharide and a galactose monosaccharide combined together by dehydration synthesis.

The that the are joined together by is called a , it forms both disaccharides and .

are polymers of sugars that have functions of storage and structure which are determined by the positions of the glycosidic bonds and the monomers in the sugar polymers. (macromolecules that hold between 100-1000 monomers)

Most Common Types of Polysaccharides and Their Functions

  • - disaccharide of glucose monosaccharide and a fructose monosaccharide combined together by dehydration synthesis.
  • - disaccharide of glucose monosaccharide and a galactose monosaccharide combined together by dehydration synthesis.
    • – stores energy in plants
    • – stores energy in animals; usually stored in muscle and liver cells.
    • – structural polysaccharide; an important part of the cell wall in plants.
    • – structural polysaccharide; found in exoskeletons of arthropods and cell walls of fungi.

    -----

    Key Terms to Review (35)

    Adenine (A)

    : Adenine is one of the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA molecules. In DNA, it pairs with thymine (T), while in RNA it pairs with uracil (U).

    Alpha Helix

    : An alpha helix is a type of secondary structure in proteins where the polypeptide chain forms a spiral shape, held together by hydrogen bonds.

    Amino Acids

    : Amino acids are organic compounds that combine to form proteins. They are the building blocks of life and are vital for a number of functions in the body.

    Beta-Pleated Sheet

    : A beta-pleated sheet is another form of secondary structure in proteins where parts of the polypeptide chain fold back on themselves to form "sheets," also held together by hydrogen bonds.

    Carbohydrates

    : Carbohydrates are biomolecules consisting mainly carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They are one of the four main types of macromolecules in living organisms and serve as a primary source of energy.

    Cellulose

    : Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate, or polysaccharide, that is composed of glucose units and forms the main component of plant cell walls.

    Chitin

    : Chitin is a long-chain polymer derived from glucose that forms part of the hard outer exoskeleton in insects, crustaceans, fungi, and other organisms.

    Covalent Bond

    : A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond where two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons, resulting in the formation of molecules.

    Cytosine (C)

    : Cytosine is another one of the four nitrogenous bases found in both DNA and RNA molecules. In both cases, it pairs with guanine (G).

    Denaturation

    : Denaturation is the process by which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak interactions within the molecule, often caused by changes in temperature or pH.

    Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

    : DNA is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in the development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.

    Disulfide Bridges

    : Disulfide bridges are covalent bonds that form between two sulfur atoms, typically within a protein molecule. They help to stabilize the 3D structure of proteins.

    DNA

    : DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms.

    Glycogen

    : Glycogen is a polysaccharide that serves as the primary form of energy storage in animals and fungi. It's similar to starch but has more extensive branching.

    Glycosidic Bond

    : A glycosidic bond is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.

    Guanine (G)

    : Guanine is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. It pairs with cytosine (C) through three hydrogen bonds.

    Hemoglobin

    : Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.

    Hydrogen Bonds

    : Hydrogen bonds are weak interactions between two molecules caused by electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in another.

    Hydroxyl Group

    : A hydroxyl group is a functional group consisting of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to one hydrogen atom (-OH). It makes a molecule polar and increases its ability to form hydrogen bonds.

    Lactose

    : Lactose is a disaccharide sugar derived from galactose and glucose that's found in milk.

    Lipids

    : Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids. They are an important part of living cells and serve as energy storage.

    Maltose

    : Maltose is a disaccharide sugar that is produced when two glucose molecules are linked together.

    Monosaccharides

    : Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of one sugar molecule. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

    Nucleic Acids

    : Nucleic acids are large biomolecules essential for all known forms of life. They include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), which carry genetic information.

    Phosphate Group

    : A phosphate group is a molecule in the chemical form PO4 that is part of many important biological structures such as DNA, RNA, ATP (adenosine triphosphate), and phospholipids.

    Polymerization

    : Polymerization is the process by which monomers (small molecules) combine to form a larger, more complex structure known as a polymer.

    Polysaccharides

    : Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides.

    Proteins

    : Large biomolecules consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms.

    Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

    : RNA is a molecule similar to DNA that plays a crucial role in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.

    RNA

    : RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a molecule similar to DNA that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis and other chemical activities of the cell.

    Sickle-Cell Disease

    : Sickle-cell disease is an inherited disorder where red blood cells become misshapen and break down more rapidly than normal, leading to anemia. It's caused by a mutation in the gene that codes for hemoglobin.

    Starch

    : Starch is a polysaccharide produced by most green plants as energy storage. It's composed of glucose units connected by glycosidic bonds.

    Sucrose

    : Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose. It's commonly known as table sugar.

    Thymine (T)

    : Thymine is one of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acid DNA. It pairs with adenine.

    Van der Waals Forces

    : Van der Waals forces are weak attractions between molecules due to temporary shifts in electron density creating temporary positive and negative charges.

    1.5 Structure and Function of Biological Macromolecules

    7 min readdecember 30, 2022

    Danna Esther Gelfand

    Danna Esther Gelfand

    Jed Quiaoit

    Jed Quiaoit

    Danna Esther Gelfand

    Danna Esther Gelfand

    Jed Quiaoit

    Jed Quiaoit

    Four Types of Macromolecules: A Refresher

    There are four main types of macromolecules: , , , and . These macromolecules are the building blocks of cells and perform a wide range of functions in living organisms.

    are made up of nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphate groups, and they carry genetic information. There are two types of : (deoxyribonucleic acid) and (ribonucleic acid). stores genetic information, while carries out the instructions of and helps to synthesize . 🧬

    are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, and they serve as a source of energy and structural support in cells. Examples of include sugars, starches, and . 🍩

    are large, complex molecules made up of , and they perform a wide range of functions in cells, including catalyzing chemical reactions, transporting molecules, and providing structural support. can be found in all cells and tissues, and they play a key role in many processes within the body. 🥩

    are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, and they are important for energy storage and cell membrane structure. Examples of include fats, oils, and phospholipids. 😁

    Structure Determines Function

    The subunits, or monomers, that make up a polymer play a crucial role in determining the structure and function of the macromolecule. The directionality of the monomers, or the way in which they are arranged and bonded together, can affect the overall shape and conformation of the polymer.

    For example, in a protein, the primary structure refers to the specific sequence of that make up the protein, and this sequence determines the three-dimensional structure of the protein, or its tertiary structure. The tertiary structure, in turn, determines the protein's function. Similarly, the arrangement of monomers in a carbohydrate or a nucleic acid can affect the structure and function of the polymer.

    Nucleic Acids

    , such as and , are long, linear polymers made up of nucleotide monomers. The nucleotides in and are linked together through covalent bonds between the sugar and phosphate groups of adjacent nucleotides. The sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid molecule is important because it carries the genetic information that is used to build and maintain living organisms.

    The sequence is read in a specific direction, starting at the 5' end and ending at the 3' end. This directionality is important because it determines the sequence of nucleotides that will be synthesized during replication and transcription.

    During these processes, nucleotides are added to the 3' end of the growing strand by a process called , which involves the formation of a between the 3' of one nucleotide and the 5' of the next nucleotide.

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-HElIOqmLjfu7.jpg?alt=media&token=83dfe3e4-3674-4fbf-b913-04608a0bad95

    Image courtesy of Lumen Learning

    Likewise, is a double-stranded helical molecule that is composed of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides that are held together by between the bases.

    The molecule is shaped like a twisted ladder, with the sugar-phosphate backbone forming the sides of the ladder and the bases forming the rungs. The strands are oriented in opposite directions, with one strand running from the 5' end to the 3' end and the other strand running from the 3' end to the 5' end. This antiparallel orientation of the strands is important for the stability of the molecule and for its role in genetic information storage and transfer.

    The bases in are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). These bases are held together by , with A pairing with T through two and C pairing with G through three . This base pairing is specific and complementary, and it ensures the stability of the molecule and the accuracy of genetic information transfer.

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-EOvT2mt8dLVV.jpeg?alt=media&token=0afb5e97-4b71-456d-8946-5dc0a3019022

    Image courtesy of BioNinja

    Proteins

    are linear polymers made up of that are linked together by peptide bonds. A peptide bond is a that is formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid. The formation of a peptide bond results in the release of a molecule of water, and this process is called peptide bond formation or peptide bond synthesis.

    The sequence of in a protein is called the primary structure of the protein, and it is determined by the sequence of the nucleotides in the gene that encodes the protein. The primary structure of a protein is important because it determines the three-dimensional structure of the protein, or its tertiary structure, which in turn determines the protein's function.

    Varied functions of include, but are not limited to: structural, catalytic, signaling, defense, and transport within cells. Functioning as: enzymes, hormones, storage, transport (through membranes), defense , and receptor .

    Levels of Protein Structure

    1. Primary Structure – a sequence of , peptide bonds.

    2. Secondary Structure– the result of hydrogen bonding between the components of the polypeptide backbone, the carboxyl and amino functional groups along the peptide chain-forming or

    3. Tertiary Structure – the result of interactions between the alpha-helix and Beta pleated sheet (interactions of the same polypeptide chain) (, hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bonding, , etc. cause its formation).

    4. Quaternary Structure – interactions between two or more polypeptide chains forming the multi-subunit protein. (common examples you will come across: polymerase, )

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2Ffigure-03-04-09.jpg?alt=media&token=578cc4f9-cdac-4bc4-bb3a-65d979de5442

    Image courtesy of Lumen Learning.

    Denaturation

    is a process that occurs when lose their tertiary structure, which is the three-dimensional arrangement of their amino acid residues, due to the disruption of the non-covalent interactions that hold the protein in its native conformation. This can be caused by various factors such as heat, pH changes, and the presence of certain chemicals or enzymes.

    can result in the loss of the protein's biological activity, which is why it is considered an inactive form of protein. Note that this process is different from hydrolysis, which is the breaking down of into smaller peptides or by the action of water or enzymes.

    💡 Important connections to other units: , an inherited blood disorder is caused by a single amino acid substitution in the protein .

    Species that share a common ancestor have some similar structured and their correspond to each other.

    Carbohydrates

    Simple , also known as , contain a single sugar unit, while complex , also known as , contain multiple sugar units linked together.

    Linear are those that have a straight chain of sugar units, while branched have branches coming off of the main chain. The structure of a carbohydrate can affect its physical and chemical properties, as well as its function in the body.

    https://firebasestorage.googleapis.com/v0/b/fiveable-92889.appspot.com/o/images%2F-zbCAi5xYv5io.png?alt=media&token=726316e1-49e3-489d-9ca1-b189e2ed4e8b

    Image courtesy of ResearchGate

    play important roles in many biological processes, including energy metabolism, cell communication, and structure and function of cells and tissues. They are also an important source of energy for the body, providing fuel for the brain, muscles, and other organs.

    Other Things of Notable Importance

    More About Carbs: Disaccharides and Polysaccharides

    Disaccharide – two joined together by a , formed through dehydration synthesis (Di – two).

    Most Common Disaccharides

    • - disaccharide of two glucose combined together by dehydration synthesis.

    • - disaccharide of glucose monosaccharide and a fructose monosaccharide combined together by dehydration synthesis.

    • - disaccharide of glucose monosaccharide and a galactose monosaccharide combined together by dehydration synthesis.

    The that the are joined together by is called a , it forms both disaccharides and .

    are polymers of sugars that have functions of storage and structure which are determined by the positions of the glycosidic bonds and the monomers in the sugar polymers. (macromolecules that hold between 100-1000 monomers)

    Most Common Types of Polysaccharides and Their Functions

  • - disaccharide of glucose monosaccharide and a fructose monosaccharide combined together by dehydration synthesis.
  • - disaccharide of glucose monosaccharide and a galactose monosaccharide combined together by dehydration synthesis.
    • – stores energy in plants
    • – stores energy in animals; usually stored in muscle and liver cells.
    • – structural polysaccharide; an important part of the cell wall in plants.
    • – structural polysaccharide; found in exoskeletons of arthropods and cell walls of fungi.

    -----

    Key Terms to Review (35)

    Adenine (A)

    : Adenine is one of the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA and RNA molecules. In DNA, it pairs with thymine (T), while in RNA it pairs with uracil (U).

    Alpha Helix

    : An alpha helix is a type of secondary structure in proteins where the polypeptide chain forms a spiral shape, held together by hydrogen bonds.

    Amino Acids

    : Amino acids are organic compounds that combine to form proteins. They are the building blocks of life and are vital for a number of functions in the body.

    Beta-Pleated Sheet

    : A beta-pleated sheet is another form of secondary structure in proteins where parts of the polypeptide chain fold back on themselves to form "sheets," also held together by hydrogen bonds.

    Carbohydrates

    : Carbohydrates are biomolecules consisting mainly carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They are one of the four main types of macromolecules in living organisms and serve as a primary source of energy.

    Cellulose

    : Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate, or polysaccharide, that is composed of glucose units and forms the main component of plant cell walls.

    Chitin

    : Chitin is a long-chain polymer derived from glucose that forms part of the hard outer exoskeleton in insects, crustaceans, fungi, and other organisms.

    Covalent Bond

    : A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond where two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons, resulting in the formation of molecules.

    Cytosine (C)

    : Cytosine is another one of the four nitrogenous bases found in both DNA and RNA molecules. In both cases, it pairs with guanine (G).

    Denaturation

    : Denaturation is the process by which a protein loses its native shape due to the disruption of weak interactions within the molecule, often caused by changes in temperature or pH.

    Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

    : DNA is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in the development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.

    Disulfide Bridges

    : Disulfide bridges are covalent bonds that form between two sulfur atoms, typically within a protein molecule. They help to stabilize the 3D structure of proteins.

    DNA

    : DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is a molecule that carries most of the genetic instructions used in development, functioning and reproduction of all known living organisms.

    Glycogen

    : Glycogen is a polysaccharide that serves as the primary form of energy storage in animals and fungi. It's similar to starch but has more extensive branching.

    Glycosidic Bond

    : A glycosidic bond is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate.

    Guanine (G)

    : Guanine is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. It pairs with cytosine (C) through three hydrogen bonds.

    Hemoglobin

    : Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and returns carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.

    Hydrogen Bonds

    : Hydrogen bonds are weak interactions between two molecules caused by electrostatic attraction between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in another.

    Hydroxyl Group

    : A hydroxyl group is a functional group consisting of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to one hydrogen atom (-OH). It makes a molecule polar and increases its ability to form hydrogen bonds.

    Lactose

    : Lactose is a disaccharide sugar derived from galactose and glucose that's found in milk.

    Lipids

    : Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids. They are an important part of living cells and serve as energy storage.

    Maltose

    : Maltose is a disaccharide sugar that is produced when two glucose molecules are linked together.

    Monosaccharides

    : Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of one sugar molecule. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

    Nucleic Acids

    : Nucleic acids are large biomolecules essential for all known forms of life. They include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), which carry genetic information.

    Phosphate Group

    : A phosphate group is a molecule in the chemical form PO4 that is part of many important biological structures such as DNA, RNA, ATP (adenosine triphosphate), and phospholipids.

    Polymerization

    : Polymerization is the process by which monomers (small molecules) combine to form a larger, more complex structure known as a polymer.

    Polysaccharides

    : Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates that are made up of more than two monosaccharides.

    Proteins

    : Large biomolecules consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms.

    Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

    : RNA is a molecule similar to DNA that plays a crucial role in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.

    RNA

    : RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) is a molecule similar to DNA that plays a crucial role in protein synthesis and other chemical activities of the cell.

    Sickle-Cell Disease

    : Sickle-cell disease is an inherited disorder where red blood cells become misshapen and break down more rapidly than normal, leading to anemia. It's caused by a mutation in the gene that codes for hemoglobin.

    Starch

    : Starch is a polysaccharide produced by most green plants as energy storage. It's composed of glucose units connected by glycosidic bonds.

    Sucrose

    : Sucrose is a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose. It's commonly known as table sugar.

    Thymine (T)

    : Thymine is one of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acid DNA. It pairs with adenine.

    Van der Waals Forces

    : Van der Waals forces are weak attractions between molecules due to temporary shifts in electron density creating temporary positive and negative charges.


    © 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

    AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.


    © 2024 Fiveable Inc. All rights reserved.

    AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.