7.1 Deviance and Control

Defining and Interpreting Deviance

Deviance refers to any behavior, belief, or characteristic that violates a society's social norms. Understanding deviance is central to sociology because it reveals how societies define boundaries, enforce rules, and respond to people who cross those lines. What counts as deviant shifts depending on who's defining it, where you are, and when you're living.

Definitions of Deviance in Context

Social norms are the written and unwritten rules that guide behavior in a society, from formal laws down to expectations like dress codes and table manners. Deviance is simply the violation of those norms.

The key thing to grasp is that deviance is relative. It changes across:

• Cultures: Polygamy is accepted in some societies but illegal in others
• Time periods: Marijuana use was widely criminalized a generation ago; today many states have legalized it
• Social groups: Visible tattoos and piercings might be normal in certain subcultures but frowned upon in a corporate office

So deviance isn't built into any specific act. It depends on context.

Theories of Deviance

Each major sociological perspective interprets deviance differently.

Functionalist perspective argues that deviance actually serves a purpose. When someone breaks a rule and society reacts, it reinforces where the boundaries of acceptable behavior are. Émile Durkheim pointed out that even a "society of saints" would find minor differences to treat as deviant. Deviance, in this view, strengthens social cohesion by uniting people against the rule-breaker.

• Anomie theory, developed by Robert K. Merton, builds on this. Merton argued that deviance results from a strain between the cultural goals a society promotes (like financial success) and the legitimate means available to achieve them (like education or jobs). When people can't reach those goals through accepted channels, they may turn to deviant alternatives like crime.

Conflict perspective flips the script. It argues that the people in power get to define what counts as deviant, and they do so in ways that protect their own status. For example, white-collar crimes like tax fraud often carry lighter penalties than street crimes, even when the financial damage is far greater.

Symbolic interactionist perspective zooms in on how deviance is constructed through everyday social interactions, especially through labeling.

• Labeling theory proposes that deviance isn't inherent in an act but is created when others label someone as deviant. Once a person is labeled (as a "criminal," "addict," etc.), they may internalize that identity and act accordingly. This process is called secondary deviance: the original act was primary deviance, but the label itself pushes the person toward further deviant behavior as a self-fulfilling prophecy.
• Stigma is the negative social mark attached to certain behaviors or characteristics. A criminal record, a mental health diagnosis, or a visible disability can all carry stigma, leading to discrimination and social exclusion that persists long after the original behavior.

Two additional theories round out the picture:

• Social disorganization theory links higher crime rates to neighborhood characteristics like poverty, residential instability, and the breakdown of local institutions (schools, churches, community organizations). When these structures weaken, informal social control breaks down.
• Subcultural theory suggests that some groups develop their own norms that conflict with mainstream society. Deviant behavior within those groups isn't random; it follows the group's own internal rules and values.

Social Control and Its Relationship to Deviance and Crime

Social control is how a society regulates people's behavior to maintain order and conformity. It comes in two broad forms, and understanding the difference matters for seeing how deviance and crime are managed.

Formal vs. Informal Social Control

Informal social control happens through everyday social interactions, without any official authority stepping in. It's the first line of defense for enforcing norms:

• Disapproval from family or friends when you break an expectation
• Gossip and rumors that damage someone's reputation
• Ostracism or exclusion from a social group
• Ridicule directed at nonconforming behavior

These might sound minor, but they're powerful. Most people conform to norms not because they fear arrest, but because they don't want to lose the approval of people around them.

Formal social control is carried out by authorized agents using official rules and laws:

• Police officers enforcing criminal statutes
• Courts imposing fines or prison sentences
• Regulatory agencies revoking licenses or issuing penalties
• In extreme cases, capital punishment

Both types work together. Informal control handles most norm violations on a daily basis, while formal control steps in when informal methods aren't enough or when the violation is serious enough to require an institutional response.

Deviance and Crime Relationship

Crime is a specific type of deviance that violates formal laws. But the overlap between deviance and crime isn't perfect. Not all deviant acts are crimes (lying to a friend, adultery in most states), and not all crimes feel deviant to most people (jaywalking, going slightly over the speed limit).

Several social factors shape crime rates and patterns:

• Poverty and inequality strain individuals and can increase motivation for crime when legitimate opportunities are limited. This connects directly back to Merton's anomie theory.
• Weak social bonds in disorganized communities reduce the informal control that normally keeps crime in check.
• Differential association theory (Edwin Sutherland) argues that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others who engage in and approve of crime. You're more likely to commit crime if the people closest to you model and reinforce it.

Societal Responses to Crime

Society doesn't respond to crime in just one way. There are three main approaches, each built on a different philosophy:

1. Deterrence emphasizes punishment to discourage crime. The idea is that if consequences are swift, certain, and severe enough, people will think twice. This underlies policies like mandatory minimum sentences.
2. Rehabilitation focuses on reforming offenders by addressing root causes of criminal behavior, such as substance abuse, lack of education, or mental health issues. The goal is to reintegrate people into society rather than simply punish them.
3. Restorative justice shifts the focus to repairing the harm caused by crime. It brings offenders, victims, and community members together through dialogue, with the aim of accountability and reconciliation rather than punishment alone.

Each approach has strengths and limitations, and most criminal justice systems use some combination of all three.