7.3 The Vertebral Column
3 min read•june 18, 2024
is a marvel of human anatomy, supporting our entire body and protecting the . It's divided into five regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal, each with unique characteristics that allow for different functions and movements.
Our spine isn't just a straight line - it has curves that develop as we grow. These curves help us absorb shock, maintain balance, and distribute weight effectively. The vertebrae themselves have specific features that vary by region, working together with and ligaments to keep us upright and flexible.
Vertebral Column Anatomy
Regions of vertebral column
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- Cervical region contains 7 (C1-C7) forms the neck and supports the skull
- Thoracic region includes 12 (T1-T12) connects to the ribs and forms the upper back
- Lumbar region has 5 (L1-L5) bears the weight of the upper body and allows for significant flexion and extension
- Sacral region consists of 1 , formed by the fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae (S1-S5), connects the spine to the hip bones
- Coccygeal region includes 1 , made up of 3-5 fused coccygeal vertebrae, serves as an attachment point for pelvic floor muscles
Spinal curvatures from birth to adulthood
- Primary curves are present at birth
- is concave anteriorly and allows space for the heart and lungs
- Sacral curve is concave anteriorly and provides stability for upright posture
- Secondary curves develop during infancy and childhood
- becomes convex anteriorly as an infant begins to hold their head up (around 3 months)
- becomes convex anteriorly as a child starts to walk (around 12-18 months)
- Spinal curves increase flexibility, absorb shock, distribute mechanical stress, and maintain balance and upright posture
Vertebral Structure and Function
Vertebrae features across spinal regions
- are the smallest and lightest, have for vertebral arteries, and bifid spinous processes (except C7)
- C1 () lacks a body and and articulates with the skull
- C2 () has the () that pivots within C1 to allow for rotation of the head
- are intermediate in size, have long, slender spinous processes angled inferiorly, and for rib articulation
- are the largest and most massive, have short, thick, rectangular spinous processes, and lack transverse foramina and costal facets
- Sacrum is triangular-shaped, formed by the fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae, and has for spinal nerve passage
- is a small, triangular bone formed by the fusion of 3-5 coccygeal vertebrae and serves as an attachment site for pelvic floor muscles
Composition of intervertebral discs
- is the tough, outer ring composed of concentric layers of fibrocartilage with collagen fibers arranged in alternating directions for strength
- is the gelatinous core with a high water content that absorbs compressive forces
- Intervertebral discs allow for flexibility, act as shock absorbers, maintain separation between vertebral bodies, and prevent nerve compression and excessive wear
Ligaments supporting vertebral column
- runs along the anterior surface of vertebral bodies and limits hyperextension
- runs along the posterior surface of vertebral bodies within the vertebral canal and limits hyperflexion
- connects the laminae of adjacent vertebrae, is highly elastic, and aids in maintaining upright posture
- connect the spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae and limit flexion
- connects the tips of the spinous processes from C7 to the sacrum and limits flexion
- connect the transverse processes of adjacent vertebrae and limit lateral flexion
Vertebral Components and Associated Structures
- : The main weight-bearing portion of the vertebra
- : Forms the posterior portion of the vertebra, enclosing the
- : Allow for movement between adjacent vertebrae and guide spinal motion
- Spinal cord: Passes through the vertebral canal formed by the vertebral arches
- : Exit through intervertebral foramina, transmitting signals between the spinal cord and body
Key Terms to Review (85)
Annulus Fibrosus: The annulus fibrosus is the tough, fibrous outer ring of an intervertebral disc that helps to connect and stabilize the vertebrae in the spine. It is a crucial component of the spinal column and cartilaginous joints.
Anterior (ventral) sacral foramen: The anterior sacral foramen are openings located on the front side of the sacrum, which is a triangular bone at the base of the spine that consists of fused vertebrae. These foramina (plural for foramen) allow for the passage of nerves and blood vessels to and from the pelvic organs.
Anterior arch: The anterior arch is the front part of the C1 vertebra, also known as the atlas, in the vertebral column. It forms the anterior portion of the ring that supports the skull, allowing for nodding and rotation movements.
Anterior longitudinal ligament: The anterior longitudinal ligament is a strong band of fibrous tissue that runs along the front (anterior) of the vertebral column, from the base of the skull to the sacrum. It helps stabilize and support the spine by preventing excessive backward movement (extension) of the vertebral column.
Anterior Longitudinal Ligament: The anterior longitudinal ligament is a continuous band of connective tissue that runs along the anterior (front) surface of the vertebral column. It plays a crucial role in stabilizing and supporting the vertebrae, helping to maintain the structural integrity of the spine.
Anulus fibrosus: The anulus fibrosus is a tough, circular ring of fibrocartilage that forms the outer layer of an intervertebral disc, providing structure and strength to the disc while allowing for flexibility and movement in the vertebral column. It encases a softer, gel-like center called the nucleus pulposus, working together to absorb shock and prevent spinal vertebrae from grinding against each other.
Atlas: The atlas is the first cervical vertebra (C1) of the vertebral column, characterized by its lack of a body and a spinous process, which supports the globe of the head. It articulates with the occipital condyles of the skull, allowing for nodding and rotation movements of the head.
Atlas: The atlas is the first cervical vertebra (C1) in the vertebral column, named after the Greek titan Atlas who was believed to have carried the heavens on his shoulders. It is responsible for supporting the weight of the head and facilitating its rotational and nodding movements.
Axial Rotation: Axial rotation refers to the movement of a body part around its longitudinal axis, allowing for twisting or turning motions. In the context of the vertebral column, axial rotation describes the ability of the spine to twist or rotate along its central axis.
Axis: In the context of anatomy and physiology, specifically when discussing the axial skeleton and the vertebral column, the axis refers to the second cervical vertebra (C2) of the spine. It is unique for its odontoid process, known as the dens, which allows for rotation of the head.
Axis: The axis is the second cervical vertebra (C2) in the vertebral column, which acts as a pivot point that allows the head to rotate. It is a crucial component of the vertebral column, playing a vital role in the mobility and stability of the neck and head.
Cervical curve: The cervical curve is a gentle C-shaped curvature of the neck region of the vertebral column, comprising the first seven vertebrae. It develops as a baby starts to hold up its head and sit, contributing to balance and shock absorption for the head.
Cervical vertebrae: The cervical vertebrae are the seven vertebrae located in the neck region of the vertebral column. They support the skull, enable a range of head movements, and protect the spinal cord that passes through them.
Cervical Vertebrae: The cervical vertebrae are the seven uppermost vertebrae in the spinal column, located in the neck region. They play a crucial role in supporting and providing mobility to the head and neck.
Coccyx: The coccyx, often referred to as the tailbone, is a small bone located at the base of the vertebral column. It is composed of three to five fused vertebrae and serves as an attachment site for ligaments and muscles of the pelvic floor.
Coccyx: The coccyx is the small, triangular bone located at the bottom of the vertebral column, formed by the fusion of 3-5 small vertebrae. It serves as an attachment point for several muscles and ligaments, and plays a role in various bodily functions and anatomical structures covered in the topics of bone classification, the skeletal system, the vertebral column, the pelvic girdle and pelvis, and the appendicular muscles of the pelvic girdle and lower limbs.
Costal facet: A costal facet is a smooth, flat surface on a vertebra that articulates (joins) with the head of a rib. These facets allow for the connection between the vertebral column and ribs, facilitating respiratory movements and structural support.
Costal Facets: Costal facets are small, smooth, concave surfaces located on the sides of the vertebral bodies that articulate with the heads of the ribs. These facets facilitate the attachment and movement of the ribs, which are an integral part of the thoracic cage and respiratory system.
Dens: The dens, also known as the odontoid process, is a bony projection that extends upward from the second cervical vertebra (C2), also known as the axis. It serves as a pivotal point around which the first cervical vertebra (C1), or atlas, rotates to allow for the head's rotation.
Dens: The dens, also known as the odontoid process, is a bony projection that extends upward from the body of the second cervical vertebra (C2), also called the axis. It serves as a pivot around which the first cervical vertebra (C1), or atlas, can rotate, allowing for the rotational movements of the head.
Facet: In the context of anatomy and physiology, specifically within the chapter on the axial skeleton focusing on the vertebral column, a facet is a smooth, flat surface found on vertebrae where they articulate (connect) with adjacent vertebrae. These facets are part of the joints that allow for flexibility and movement in the spine.
Facet Joints: Facet joints, also known as zygapophysial joints, are small, paired synovial joints located between the superior and inferior articular processes of adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column. These joints play a crucial role in the flexibility and stability of the spine.
Herniated Disc: A herniated disc, also known as a slipped or ruptured disc, occurs when the soft, jelly-like center of an intervertebral disc protrudes through a tear in the outer, fibrous ring of the disc. This can lead to compression of the surrounding nerves, causing pain, numbness, and other neurological symptoms.
Inferior articular process: The inferior articular process is a protrusion on the lower end of a vertebra that connects with an articulation (joint) surface of the adjacent lower vertebra. It plays a critical role in the flexibility and movement of the vertebral column.
Interspinous Ligaments: The interspinous ligaments are strong, elastic connective tissue structures that connect the spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae. They play a crucial role in stabilizing and limiting the range of motion of the vertebral column, particularly in the posterior region.
Intertransverse Ligaments: The intertransverse ligaments are a set of ligaments that connect the transverse processes of adjacent vertebrae in the vertebral column. These ligaments help stabilize and support the spinal column by limiting excessive motion between the vertebrae.
Intervertebral disc: Intervertebral discs are pads of cartilage situated between the vertebrae in the spine, serving as shock absorbers and allowing for flexibility. Each disc has a tough outer layer called the annulus fibrosus and a soft, gel-like center known as the nucleus pulposus.
Intervertebral Discs: Intervertebral discs are flexible, cushion-like structures located between the vertebrae of the spine. They serve to connect and support the vertebrae, absorb shock, and facilitate spinal flexibility and movement.
Intervertebral foramen: The intervertebral foramen is an opening between adjacent vertebrae through which nerves and blood vessels pass. It allows for the exit of spinal nerves from the spinal column to various parts of the body.
Kyphosis: Kyphosis is a forward rounding of the upper back that can result in a hunchback appearance. It is caused by various factors including degenerative diseases, developmental problems, osteoporosis, or injury to the vertebral column.
Kyphosis: Kyphosis is a spinal condition characterized by an excessive outward curvature of the thoracic spine, resulting in a hunchback appearance. This condition can occur due to various factors, including developmental issues, degenerative diseases, or trauma, affecting the overall alignment and function of the vertebral column. Understanding kyphosis is crucial for recognizing its impact on posture, mobility, and potential complications related to the vertebral structure.
Lamina: In the context of the vertebral column, a lamina is part of a vertebra that forms the posterior portion of the vertebral arch, which serves to protect the spinal cord. It bridges between the more medial spinous process and the more lateral transverse processes.
Lateral sacral crest: The lateral sacral crest is a feature found on the dorsal surface of the sacrum, consisting of fused rudimentary transverse processes of the sacral vertebrae. It provides points of attachment for ligaments and muscles, contributing to the stability and movement of the pelvis.
Ligamentum flavum: The ligamentum flavum is a pair of short, strong, yellowish ligaments that connect the laminae of adjacent vertebrae from the axis (C2) to the sacrum, providing stability and elasticity to the spine. It helps in preserving the upright posture and assists in controlling the motion between vertebral bodies.
Ligamentum Flavum: The ligamentum flavum, also known as the yellow ligament, is a crucial spinal ligament that connects the laminae of adjacent vertebrae. It plays a vital role in the structural integrity and flexibility of the vertebral column.
Lordosis: Lordosis is an inward curvature of the spine, typically observed in the lower back. This condition can be a normal posture or indicate a medical issue when the curve becomes excessive.
Lordosis: Lordosis refers to the natural inward curvature of the lumbar (lower) region of the vertebral column. This curvature is an important structural feature that helps to distribute weight and absorb shock, contributing to the overall stability and flexibility of the spine.
Lumbar curve: The lumbar curve is the inward curve of the lower back in the vertebral column, consisting of five vertebrae located between the thoracic vertebrae and sacral curvature. It plays a critical role in distributing mechanical stress during movement and providing flexibility to the spine.
Lumbar vertebrae: The lumbar vertebrae are the five vertebrae located between the thoracic vertebrae and the sacral region of the spinal column, specifically designed to support a large portion of the body's weight and enable flexible movement. These vertebrae are larger and stronger than those in other regions of the spine, reflecting their load-bearing role.
Lumbar Vertebrae: The lumbar vertebrae are the five largest and strongest vertebrae in the vertebral column, located in the lower back region. They play a crucial role in supporting the weight of the upper body and facilitating movement and flexibility in the lower back.
Median sacral crest: The median sacral crest is a ridge formed by the fused spinous processes of the sacral vertebrae, situated on the posterior surface of the sacrum. It represents the junction where the spinous processes have merged in the midline.
Nuchal ligament: The nuchal ligament is a strong, fibrous band of tissue located in the back of the neck that extends from the skull's external occipital protuberance to the cervical spine, providing support and limiting excessive movement. It plays a crucial role in maintaining posture and facilitating head movements.
Nucleus pulposus: The nucleus pulposus is the inner core of the vertebral disc, composed of a jelly-like material that provides the disc with its elasticity and ability to absorb shock. It is crucial for the normal function and flexibility of the vertebral column.
Nucleus Pulposus: The nucleus pulposus is a gelatinous, cushion-like structure located at the center of the intervertebral discs in the vertebral column. It plays a crucial role in the structure and function of the vertebral column, as well as the embryonic development of the axial skeleton and the formation of cartilaginous joints.
Odontoid Process: The odontoid process, also known as the dens, is a bony projection that extends upward from the body of the second cervical vertebra (C2 or axis). It serves as a pivot around which the first cervical vertebra (C1 or atlas) can rotate, allowing for the side-to-side movement of the head.
Pedicle: A pedicle is a short, stubby projection from the posterior part of a vertebra in the vertebral column that connects to the body of the vertebra. It serves as a bridge for attaching larger structures like the lamina and facilitates articulation with adjacent vertebrae.
Posterior (dorsal) sacral foramen: The posterior (dorsal) sacral foramen are openings located on the back side of the sacrum, which allow for the passage of nerves and blood vessels. They are part of the vertebral column and play a crucial role in connecting the neural and circulatory systems to the lower part of the body.
Posterior arch: The posterior arch is a bony structure in each vertebra of the spine that, along with the vertebral body, encloses the vertebral foramen. It forms part of the canal through which the spinal cord passes.
Posterior longitudinal ligament: The posterior longitudinal ligament is a strong fibrous tissue band that runs along the back of the vertebral bodies from the base of the skull to the sacrum, providing support and stability to the spinal column. It helps prevent hyperflexion of the spine, protecting it from injury.
Posterior Longitudinal Ligament: The posterior longitudinal ligament is a continuous band of connective tissue that runs along the posterior (back) aspect of the vertebral column. It plays a crucial role in providing stability and support to the spinal column.
Primary curve: A primary curve refers to the spinal curvatures present at birth, which are convex posteriorly and include the thoracic and sacrococcygeal (pelvic) curves. These curves are essential for distributing mechanical stress during movement.
Sacral canal: The sacral canal is the continuation of the vertebral canal, running through the sacrum and terminating at the sacral hiatus. It serves as a protective pathway for the nerve roots of the cauda equina.
Sacral foramina: Sacral foramina are a series of holes located in the sacrum, a triangular bone at the base of the spine that is formed by the fusion of five vertebrae. They allow for the passage of nerves and blood vessels to and from the pelvic region.
Sacral Foramina: The sacral foramina are openings in the sacrum, the fused vertebrae at the base of the spine. These foramina allow the passage of spinal nerves and blood vessels between the sacrum and the surrounding tissues.
Sacral hiatus: The sacral hiatus is an opening at the inferior end of the sacrum, on its posterior surface. This natural opening is formed by the failure of the laminae of the fifth sacral vertebra to fuse.
Sacral promontory: The sacral promontory is the anterior edge of the first sacral vertebra, protruding forward into the pelvic cavity. It marks the boundary between the abdominal and pelvic cavities.
Sacrococcygeal curve: The sacrococcygeal curve is the slight, concave curvature formed by the sacrum and coccyx bones at the base of the vertebral column. This curve contributes to the overall S-shape of the spine, aiding in balance and shock absorption.
Sacrum: The sacrum is a large, triangular bone located at the base of the vertebral column. It is formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae and serves as the connection between the spine and the pelvic girdle, playing a crucial role in the structure and function of the skeletal system.
Scoliosis: Scoliosis is a medical condition where there's an abnormal lateral (sideways) curvature of the spine. It can appear in any part of the spine but is most commonly found in the chest area (thoracic scoliosis) or lower back (lumbar scoliosis).
Scoliosis: Scoliosis is a medical condition characterized by an abnormal lateral (sideways) curvature of the spine. It is a three-dimensional deformity that can occur in various regions of the vertebral column, often resulting in an S-shaped or C-shaped curve.
Secondary curve: Secondary curves are the spinal curvatures that develop after birth, namely in the cervical and lumbar regions, to help humans achieve an upright posture. These curves are convex anteriorly, contrasting with the primary curves present at birth.
Spinal cord: The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue that extends from the brainstem down the back and is encased within the vertebral column. It functions as a major conduit for information to travel between the brain and the rest of the body, enabling sensory data to be sent to the brain and motor commands to be dispatched to various body parts.
Spinal Cord: The spinal cord is a long, cylindrical structure that extends from the base of the brain, known as the medulla oblongata, to the lower back region. It serves as the main communication pathway between the brain and the rest of the body, transmitting sensory information to the brain and motor commands from the brain to the muscles. The spinal cord is a crucial component of the central nervous system and plays a vital role in the structural organization of the human body, the function of various tissues, the vertebral column, and the processing of motor and sensory information.
Spinal flexion: Spinal flexion is the movement of bending the spine forward, reducing the angle between the vertebrae and bringing the torso closer to the thighs. This motion is primarily facilitated by the lumbar and thoracic regions of the vertebral column and involves the contraction of specific muscles, such as the rectus abdominis and hip flexors. Understanding spinal flexion is crucial because it plays a significant role in various physical activities and is essential for maintaining proper posture and spinal health.
Spinal Nerves: Spinal nerves are the bundles of nerve fibers that emerge from the spinal cord through openings between the vertebrae, known as intervertebral foramina. These nerves serve as the main conduits for transmitting sensory and motor information between the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the rest of the body.
Spinous process: The spinous process is a bony projection off the posterior (back) part of each vertebra in the vertebral column. It serves as an attachment point for muscles and ligaments that move and stabilize the spine.
Spinous Process: The spinous process is a bony projection that extends posteriorly from the vertebral arch of each vertebra in the vertebral column. It serves as an attachment point for various muscles and ligaments that facilitate movement and stability of the spine.
Superior articular process: The superior articular process is a protrusion of bone on the upper part of a vertebra that forms a joint (facet) with the vertebra above it, allowing for movements between spinal segments. These processes help stabilize the vertebral column while enabling flexibility and motion.
Superior articular process of the sacrum: The superior articular process of the sacrum is a paired anatomical structure located at the top part of the sacrum, which articulates (forms a joint) with the inferior articular processes of the lumbar vertebra above it. It plays a critical role in connecting the spine to the pelvis and contributes to the flexibility and movement of the lower back.
Supraspinous ligament: The supraspinous ligament is a strong, fibrous cord that connects the tips of the spinous processes from the seventh cervical vertebra down to the sacrum. It serves as an important stabilizer for the vertebral column, providing support and limiting flexion (forward bending).
Supraspinous Ligament: The supraspinous ligament is a strong, longitudinal ligament that runs along the posterior aspect of the vertebral column, connecting the spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae. It plays a crucial role in stabilizing and supporting the vertebral column.
The Vertebral Column: The vertebral column, also known as the spine, is a series of vertebrae extending from the skull to the pelvis, which encases and protects the spinal cord while providing structural support and flexibility to the body. It is composed of individual bones separated by intervertebral discs that act as shock absorbers.
Thoracic curve: The thoracic curve is a natural, outward (kyphotic) curvature of the spine located in the upper and middle back, consisting of twelve vertebrae (T1-T12) that correspond to the same number of ribs. This curvature supports the rib cage and plays a crucial role in allowing the body to stand upright and protect vital organs within the chest.
Thoracic vertebrae: The thoracic vertebrae are a group of twelve vertebrae located in the middle section of the vertebral column, between the cervical vertebrae at the top and the lumbar vertebrae at the bottom. They are distinguished by the presence of facets on their sides for rib attachment, supporting the ribcage and playing a crucial role in protecting vital organs within the thorax.
Thoracic Vertebrae: The thoracic vertebrae are a set of 12 vertebrae that make up the middle portion of the vertebral column, also known as the spine. They play a crucial role in the structure and function of the thoracic cage, which houses and protects vital organs such as the heart and lungs.
Transverse foramen: The transverse foramen is a small opening or hole found in each of the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae. It allows for the passage of the vertebral artery, vein, and nerve fibers through the cervical vertebrae.
Transverse Foramina: Transverse foramina are small openings or holes found in the transverse processes of the cervical vertebrae. These foramina allow the passage of blood vessels and nerves, specifically the vertebral arteries and veins, as well as the cervical spinal nerves, connecting the spinal cord to the rest of the body.
Transverse process: The transverse process is a small bony projection off the right and left side of each vertebra in the vertebral column. It serves as a point of attachment for muscles and ligaments of the spine.
Vertebral (spinal) canal: The vertebral canal is a long, tubular space running through the center of the vertebral column that encases and protects the spinal cord. It is formed by the alignment of vertebral foramina (the holes in the center of vertebrae) when the vertebrae are stacked on top of each other.
Vertebral arch: The vertebral arch is a structure in the vertebral column that forms the canal through which the spinal cord passes. It is composed of two pedicles and two laminae that arc around the back of the vertebral body.
Vertebral Arch: The vertebral arch is a bony structure that forms the posterior part of the vertebra, enclosing and protecting the spinal cord. It is a crucial component of the vertebral column, which is the central axis of the axial skeleton.
Vertebral body: The vertebral body is the largest, cylindrical part of a vertebra, primarily responsible for bearing weight and providing structural support to the spine. Each vertebral body is separated by intervertebral discs, which act as shock absorbers and facilitate movement between the vertebrae. These structures play a vital role in maintaining the overall stability and integrity of the vertebral column.
Vertebral Column: The vertebral column, also known as the spine or backbone, is a central structure of the skeletal system that provides support, protection, and flexibility to the body. It is composed of a series of interconnected vertebrae that extend from the base of the skull to the pelvis, forming the central axis of the body.
Vertebral foramen: The vertebral foramen is a central opening in each vertebra of the spinal column through which the spinal cord passes. It is surrounded by bone and provides a protective tunnel for the spinal cord.
Vertebral Foramen: The vertebral foramen is the opening within each vertebra that allows the spinal cord to pass through. It is a critical component of the vertebral column, providing a protected pathway for the delicate neural structures of the spinal cord.