3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles
4 min read•june 18, 2024
The endomembrane system is a complex network of organelles that work together to process and transport cellular materials. From to the , , and , each component plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular function and homeostasis.
and , while not part of the endomembrane system, are vital for energy production and detoxification. The , composed of , , and , provides structural support and enables cellular movement and organization.
Endomembrane System
Structure of endomembrane system organelles
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- forms the outer boundary of the cell, regulating the movement of substances in and out
- consists of a network of interconnected membrane-bound channels and sacs that extend throughout the ()
- studded with on its outer surface synthesizes and modifies proteins (secretory proteins, lysosomal enzymes)
- lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid and steroid synthesis (phospholipids, cholesterol), detoxification of harmful substances (drugs, alcohol), and storage and release of calcium ions for cellular signaling
- composed of a stack of flattened membrane sacs (cisternae) that receive, modify, package, and sort proteins and lipids from the ER
- receives substances from ER, while prepares them for secretion or transport to other organelles (lysosomes, plasma membrane)
- Modifies proteins and lipids by adding carbohydrates (), phosphates (), and other chemical groups
- Lysosomes are membrane-bound containing digestive enzymes () that break down and recycle worn-out organelles, damaged proteins, and foreign particles (bacteria, viruses)
- Maintain cellular homeostasis through intracellular digestion and help in (programmed cell death)
- Disorders related to lysosomal dysfunction lead to accumulation of undigested materials (, )
Roles of mitochondria and peroxisomes
- Mitochondria are double-membrane organelles that contain their own DNA and ribosomes, playing a crucial role in cellular respiration and energy production
- Inner membrane folded into , increasing surface area for ATP production via electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
- Matrix contains enzymes for , which breaks down glucose and other organic molecules to generate high-energy electrons (, )
- Regulate calcium ion concentration in the cell, important for signaling and ( release)
- Peroxisomes are single-membrane organelles that contain oxidative enzymes for metabolic processes and detoxification
- breaks down hydrogen peroxide (), a byproduct of cellular metabolism, into water and oxygen, preventing oxidative damage
- Other enzymes (oxidases) break down fatty acids () and amino acids, generating in the process
- Detoxify harmful substances like alcohol and other toxins, and synthesize bile acids and (a type of phospholipid found in myelin sheath)
Components of the cytoskeleton
- Microfilaments are the thinnest component (6-8 nm diameter) composed of proteins that provide mechanical support and enable cell movement
- Arranged in a network of filaments and bundles, maintaining cell shape and allowing for contraction (muscle cells)
- Involved in (formation of contractile ring) and (, )
- Associated with motor proteins () for cell movement and transport of organelles
- Intermediate filaments are made of various proteins (, ) with a diameter of 8-12 nm, providing structural support and resistance to mechanical stress
- Help maintain cell shape and organize internal structures, anchoring organelles in place
- Provide stability to the nuclear envelope by connecting it to the cytoskeleton
- Specific to cell type keratin in epithelial cells, in neurons, in muscle cells
- Microtubules are the largest component (25 nm diameter), composed of hollow cylindrical structures made of and proteins
- Organize the cell's interior and provide pathways for intracellular transport of vesicles and organelles (endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus)
- Form the during cell division, separating chromosomes and ensuring proper distribution to daughter cells
- Constitute the core of and , enabling cell movement (sperm cells, respiratory epithelium)
- Associated with motor proteins (, ) for transport along microtubules
Cellular Transport and Communication
- Vesicles are small membrane-bound sacs that transport materials within the cell
- is the process by which vesicles fuse with the cell membrane to release their contents outside the cell
- Endocytosis involves the internalization of materials from the cell's environment through membrane invagination
- refers to the directed movement of organelles within the cell, often along cytoskeletal elements
- The is the liquid component of the in which organelles and other cellular components are suspended
- The , containing genetic material, directs cellular activities and protein synthesis
Key Terms to Review (83)
Actin: Actin is a globular protein that forms long, thin filaments which are a major component of the cytoskeleton in all eukaryotic cells and is crucial in the contraction of skeletal muscles. It works together with myosin to convert chemical energy into mechanical energy, leading to muscle movement.
Actin: Actin is a globular protein that is a key structural component of the cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells. It is involved in a wide range of cellular processes, including muscle contraction, cell motility, cell division, and the maintenance of cell shape and integrity.
Apoptosis: Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms, where cells systematically dismantle themselves and are removed without releasing harmful substances into the surrounding area. It plays a crucial role in maintaining tissue health by eliminating old, unnecessary, or damaged cells.
Apoptosis: Apoptosis is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a highly regulated and controlled process that plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including cell growth and division, tissue injury and aging, production of formed elements, and the adaptive immune response.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate): ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is the primary energy currency of the cell. It is a high-energy molecule that stores and transports the chemical energy needed to power a wide variety of cellular processes, from muscle contraction to protein synthesis. ATP is central to the functions of human life, chemical bonds, chemical reactions, organic compounds, cellular organelles, protein synthesis, muscle contraction, respiration, metabolism, and fluid balance.
ATP synthase: ATP synthase is an enzyme complex embedded in the mitochondrial membrane that facilitates the synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the primary energy carrier in cells, from ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate during the process of oxidative phosphorylation within carbohydrate metabolism. It acts as a molecular generator, converting an electrochemical gradient into energy stored in the form of ATP.
Autolysis: Autolysis is the process by which a cell self-destructs through the action of its own enzymes, breaking down cell components after it dies. It occurs when lysosomes release their enzymes into the cytoplasm, leading to cellular breakdown.
Catalase: Catalase is an enzyme found in the cells of most living organisms, including plants, animals, and aerobic bacteria. It is primarily responsible for catalyzing the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into water and oxygen, protecting cells from the damaging effects of this reactive oxygen species.
Cell Membrane: The cell membrane is a selectively permeable barrier that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell. It is responsible for controlling the movement of substances in and out of the cell, maintaining the cell's internal environment, and facilitating communication between the cell and its external environment.
Cellular Organelles: Cellular organelles are specialized structures within a cell that perform specific functions to support the cell's survival and activities. These organelles work together as the cell's internal machinery, carrying out essential processes like energy production, waste removal, and protein synthesis.
Centriole: A centriole is a cylindrical cellular structure composed of microtubules, found near the nucleus in animal cells and most protists. It plays a crucial role in cell division by helping to organize the mitotic spindle apparatus.
Cilia: Cilia are small, hair-like projections found on the surface of certain cells, particularly in the respiratory and reproductive systems. They play a crucial role in the cytoplasm and cellular organelles by facilitating movement and transport within the cell.
Cis Face: The cis face, also known as the cis-side or the cytoplasmic face, refers to the side of a membrane-bound organelle that is oriented towards the cytoplasm of the cell. It is an important concept in the context of cellular organelles and their organization within the cytoplasm.
Cisternae: Cisternae are flattened, membrane-enclosed sacs that are part of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus in eukaryotic cells. They serve as storage and transport hubs for proteins and other cellular materials.
Cristae: Cristae are the internal membrane structures found within the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. They are responsible for increasing the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane, which is essential for the efficient production of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Cytochrome c: Cytochrome c is a small heme-containing protein found in the mitochondrial intermembrane space of eukaryotic cells. It plays a crucial role in the electron transport chain, a key step in the process of cellular respiration and energy production within the cell.
Cytokinesis: Cytokinesis is the process during cell division in which the cytoplasm of a parent cell divides, resulting in two daughter cells. It occurs after nuclear division (mitosis or meiosis), completing the cell division process.
Cytokinesis: Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division where the cytoplasm of a single cell is divided into two daughter cells. It occurs after the genetic material has been replicated and equally distributed to the two daughter cells during the process of mitosis or meiosis.
Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance inside the cell that surrounds all cellular components, except the nucleus, and is composed of water, salts, and proteins. It plays a critical role in maintaining the cell's shape, providing a site for many biochemical reactions necessary for the cell's survival.
Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the interior of a cell, excluding the nucleus. It is the site of many essential cellular processes and provides the structural framework for the organelles within the cell.
Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton is a network of protein fibers within a cell that provides structure, support, and aids in cellular movement. It consists of microtubules, actin filaments, and intermediate filaments that help maintain cell shape and enable intracellular transport.
Cytosol: The cytosol is the liquid component of the cytoplasm within a eukaryotic cell, excluding the organelles and other cellular structures. It is the medium in which the organelles and other cellular components are suspended, and it plays a crucial role in various cellular processes.
Desmin: Desmin is a type of intermediate filament protein that is primarily found in muscle cells, particularly in cardiac and skeletal muscle. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity and organization of muscle fibers, as well as in the transmission of mechanical forces within the muscle tissue.
Dynein: Dynein is a large motor protein complex found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It is responsible for the movement and transport of various cellular components, including organelles, vesicles, and chromosomes, along microtubules within the cell.
Endocytosis: Endocytosis is a cellular process in which substances, such as nutrients or signaling molecules, are brought into the cell by engulfing them with the cell membrane. It is a crucial mechanism for the uptake of materials from the extracellular environment and plays a vital role in various cellular functions.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a vast network of interconnected tubules and flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It serves as a key organelle responsible for the synthesis, folding, and transport of proteins, as well as the production and regulation of lipids and other cellular components.
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranous tubes and sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, involved in the synthesis, folding, modification, and transport of proteins and lipids. It exists in two forms: rough ER, studded with ribosomes, and smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes.
Exocytosis: Exocytosis is a cellular process where cells transport molecules out of the cell by vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and releasing their contents into the extracellular space. This process is essential for the secretion of substances produced by cells, such as hormones and neurotransmitters.
Exocytosis: Exocytosis is the process by which a cell transports and releases substances, such as neurotransmitters, hormones, or other molecules, from the interior of the cell to the extracellular environment. It is a fundamental mechanism for cellular communication and secretion, and is closely linked to the function of the cell membrane and cellular organelles.
FADH2: FADH2, or flavin adenine dinucleotide, is a coenzyme that plays a crucial role in cellular respiration and energy production within the body. It is a key component of the electron transport chain, a series of reactions that generate the majority of the cell's energy in the form of ATP.
Flagella: Flagella are long, whip-like structures that extend from the cell surface of certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. They are responsible for the locomotion and movement of these cells, allowing them to propel themselves through their environment.
Flagellum: A flagellum is a whip-like structure that extends from the cell body of certain cells, primarily used for locomotion. In the context of anatomy and physiology, it plays a crucial role in enabling sperm cells to move towards the egg for fertilization.
Gaucher's Disease: Gaucher's disease is a rare inherited metabolic disorder characterized by the deficiency of the enzyme glucocerebrosidase, leading to the accumulation of glucocerebroside in various organs and tissues, particularly the spleen, liver, and bone marrow. This buildup of glucocerebroside can cause a wide range of symptoms and complications.
Glycosylation: Glycosylation is the enzymatic process of adding glycan (carbohydrate) chains to proteins, lipids, or other organic molecules. This post-translational modification is crucial for the proper folding, stability, and function of many biomolecules within the cytoplasm and cellular organelles.
Golgi apparatus: The Golgi apparatus is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells that is responsible for modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles. It consists of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae.
Golgi Apparatus: The Golgi apparatus is a complex organelle found in eukaryotic cells that functions as a central hub for the processing, sorting, and packaging of proteins and other molecules for transport to their intended destinations within the cell or for secretion outside the cell.
Hydrolases: Hydrolases are a class of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolytic cleavage of chemical bonds within their substrates. They play a crucial role in the cytoplasm and cellular organelles by breaking down complex molecules into simpler components, facilitating important metabolic processes within the cell.
Intermediate filament: Intermediate filaments are a component of the cytoskeleton in eukaryotic cells that provide mechanical support and maintain cell shape. They are fibrous proteins that assemble into cables, playing a critical role in cell integrity and structure.
Intermediate Filaments: Intermediate filaments are a type of cytoskeletal structure found within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. They provide mechanical support and help maintain the overall shape and integrity of the cell, particularly in tissues that experience high levels of physical stress.
Keratin: Keratin is a type of structural protein that is the primary component of various tissues and structures in the human body, including the skin, hair, nails, and the cytoskeleton of cells. It is known for its strength, durability, and protective properties, making it essential for the proper functioning of several physiological systems.
Keratinocyte: Keratinocytes are the primary type of cell found in the epidermis, the outermost layer of the skin, responsible for producing keratin, a protein that gives skin its strength and resilience. These cells originate from the basal layer and move upward, changing their form as they go, to eventually form the tough outer skin surface.
Kinesin: Kinesin is a molecular motor protein that uses energy from ATP hydrolysis to drive the movement of various cargo along microtubules within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It plays a crucial role in the transport and distribution of organelles, vesicles, and other cellular components throughout the cell.
Krebs cycle: The Krebs cycle is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into carbon dioxide and water. It is a key component of the cellular respiration process that occurs in the mitochondria, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2 as energy carriers.
Krebs Cycle: The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, is a series of chemical reactions that occur in the mitochondria of cells. It is a key metabolic pathway that generates energy in the form of ATP during cellular respiration, and it is a central component of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism.
Lysosome: A lysosome is a membrane-bound cell organelle containing digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris. It can be thought of as the waste disposal system of the cell, ensuring that the cell remains healthy by removing unwanted materials.
Lysosomes: Lysosomes are specialized organelles found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. They act as the 'recycling centers' of the cell, containing digestive enzymes that break down and recycle various cellular components and materials from outside the cell.
Microfilament: Microfilaments are slender, thread-like protein structures present in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells that play a key role in providing structural support and facilitating cell movement. They are primarily composed of the protein actin and are involved in various cellular activities including muscle contraction, cell division, and the maintenance of cell shape.
Microfilaments: Microfilaments are thin, thread-like protein structures that are part of the cytoskeleton within eukaryotic cells. They play a crucial role in cellular processes such as cell movement, cell division, and the maintenance of cell shape and structure.
Microtubule: Microtubules are tube-shaped structures within the cell that are made up of protein subunits called tubulin. They provide structural support, aid in cell division, and facilitate intracellular transport.
Microtubules: Microtubules are hollow, cylindrical structures found within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. They are part of the cell's cytoskeleton, providing structural support, facilitating intracellular transport, and playing a crucial role in cell division and movement.
Mitochondria: Mitochondria are double-membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell due to their role in producing adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through cellular respiration. These organelles play a crucial role in energy metabolism, converting nutrients into usable energy while also being involved in other important cellular functions such as apoptosis and calcium homeostasis.
Mitochondrion: A mitochondrion is a membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, responsible for producing the cell's energy through the process of cellular respiration. It contains its own DNA and can replicate independently within the cell.
Mitotic Spindle: The mitotic spindle is a structure that forms during cell division, specifically during mitosis. It is responsible for the accurate segregation of the duplicated chromosomes into the two daughter cells, ensuring the genetic material is evenly distributed.
Mutation: A mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene, which can affect how a cell functions or develops. These changes can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral to an organism.
Myosin: Myosin is a type of motor protein found in muscle cells that, through its interaction with actin, plays a crucial role in muscle contraction and movement. It converts chemical energy in the form of ATP to mechanical energy, thus enabling the muscles to contract.
Myosin: Myosin is a motor protein that is essential for muscle contraction and movement. It is a key component of the contractile apparatus within muscle fibers and interacts with the actin filaments to generate the force required for muscle movement and locomotion.
NADH: NADH, or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced), is a coenzyme that plays a crucial role in cellular metabolism. It is the reduced form of NAD+, which is an essential cofactor in numerous metabolic reactions, including those involved in energy production, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and cellular signaling.
Neurofilaments: Neurofilaments are specialized cytoskeletal structures found within the axons and dendrites of neurons. They provide structural support and contribute to the maintenance of the neuron's shape and size, which is essential for efficient signal transmission along the length of the neuron.
Nucleus: The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells that contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to form chromosomes. It acts as the control center of the cell, regulating gene expression and mediating the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.
Organelle: An organelle is a specialized structure within a cell that performs a specific function necessary for the cell's life. These structures are analogous to the organs of a body, each contributing to the overall health and functionality of the cell.
Organelle Trafficking: Organelle trafficking refers to the coordinated movement and transport of cellular organelles within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell. This process is essential for the proper distribution and function of organelles, ensuring they are positioned where they are needed to carry out their specialized tasks.
Oxidative phosphorylation: Oxidative phosphorylation is a metabolic process by which cells generate ATP, the primary energy currency, through the transfer of electrons from nutrient molecules to molecular oxygen in mitochondria. This process involves a chain of protein complexes and electron carriers within the inner mitochondrial membrane, culminating in the production of water and ATP.
Peroxisome: Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of nearly all eukaryotic cells, responsible for detoxifying harmful substances and lipid metabolism. They contain enzymes that convert hydrogen peroxide, a toxic byproduct of metabolism, into water and oxygen.
Peroxisomes: Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. They are involved in a variety of metabolic processes, including the breakdown of fatty acids and the detoxification of harmful substances.
Phagocytosis: Phagocytosis is the process by which certain living cells called phagocytes engulf and digest particles or other cells, often to fight off pathogens or to clear debris in the body. It involves the cell membrane wrapping around the particle and forming a vesicle known as a phagosome that encloses the material to be broken down.
Phagocytosis: Phagocytosis is the process by which certain cells, called phagocytes, engulf and digest foreign particles, pathogens, or cellular debris. It is a crucial mechanism in the body's immune response and plays a vital role in cellular homeostasis, tissue repair, and the innate immune system.
Phosphorylation: Phosphorylation is a fundamental biochemical process in which a phosphate group (PO4) is added to a molecule, typically a protein, by an enzyme. This process is crucial for the regulation and activation of various cellular functions and signaling pathways.
Pinocytosis: Pinocytosis is a form of endocytosis where a cell engulfs liquid from the surrounding environment, incorporating the fluid and dissolved solutes into small vesicles within its cytoplasm. It enables cells to sample the extracellular fluid and absorb nutrients.
Pinocytosis: Pinocytosis is a type of endocytosis, a process in which cells take in extracellular materials by engulfing them and forming small, membrane-bound vesicles. It is a mechanism used by cells to internalize molecules and particles from the surrounding environment.
Plasmalogens: Plasmalogens are a unique class of phospholipids found in the membranes of various cells, particularly in the nervous system and heart. They are characterized by the presence of a vinyl ether linkage at the sn-1 position of the glycerol backbone, which differentiates them from other common phospholipids.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Receptor-mediated endocytosis is a cellular process where specific molecules are ingested into the cell after binding to receptor proteins on the cell membrane. This mechanism allows cells to selectively take up large molecules and particles that cannot pass through the membrane directly.
Ribosome: Ribosomes are molecular machines within the cell that synthesize proteins by translating the genetic code from mRNA. They can be found floating freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, forming rough ER.
Ribosomes: Ribosomes are small, dense organelles found within the cytoplasm of all living cells, responsible for the synthesis of proteins, the fundamental building blocks of life. They are the sites of protein translation, where the genetic code is read and used to direct the assembly of amino acids into polypeptide chains.
Rough ER: Rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER) is a network of interconnected tubules and flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It is called 'rough' because it has ribosomes attached to its surface, giving it a granular appearance under a microscope. The rough ER is the site of protein synthesis and processing, playing a crucial role in the production and modification of proteins destined for secretion or use within the cell.
Smooth ER: Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER) is a network of interconnected tubules and flattened sacs within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It is a specialized organelle that lacks the ribosomes found on the rough ER, giving it a smooth appearance under a microscope. The smooth ER plays a crucial role in various cellular processes, including lipid and steroid synthesis, calcium ion storage and regulation, and detoxification.
Tay-Sachs disease: Tay-Sachs disease is a rare, inherited, and fatal neurological disorder caused by the absence of a critical enzyme, resulting in the accumulation of harmful substances in the nerve cells of the brain. This genetic condition primarily affects the cytoplasm and cellular organelles, particularly the lysosomes, and exhibits distinct patterns of inheritance.
The Cell Membrane: The cell membrane is a thin, flexible barrier that surrounds the cell, controlling the movement of substances in and out to maintain an appropriate internal environment. It is composed of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins that facilitate communication and transport.
Trans Face: Trans face refers to the orientation of the Golgi apparatus within a cell, specifically its positioning relative to the nucleus. The Golgi apparatus is a key organelle involved in the processing and transport of proteins and lipids, and its orientation plays a crucial role in cellular function and organization.
Vesicles: Vesicles are small, membrane-bound organelles found within the cytoplasm of cells. They serve as transporters, carrying various substances such as proteins, lipids, and neurotransmitters, and play a crucial role in the organization and function of the cellular organelles described in the context of 3.2 The Cytoplasm and Cellular Organelles.
Vimentin: Vimentin is a type III intermediate filament protein found in the cytoplasm of various cell types, particularly cells of mesenchymal origin. It plays a crucial role in maintaining the structural integrity and organization of the cytoplasm within eukaryotic cells.
α-tubulin: α-tubulin is a key structural protein that forms the microtubules within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It is a crucial component of the cytoskeleton, which provides shape, structure, and the necessary framework for various cellular processes.
β-oxidation: β-oxidation is the process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to produce acetyl-CoA, which can then enter the citric acid cycle to generate ATP. This catabolic pathway is a crucial component of cellular metabolism, providing energy for the body's cells.
β-tubulin: β-tubulin is a type of tubulin protein that is a crucial structural component of microtubules, which are cytoskeletal filaments found within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. It forms the backbone of microtubules, providing the structural support and dynamic properties necessary for various cellular processes.