| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| atomic motion | The movement and collisions of atoms within a gas that produce forces and pressure. |
| average kinetic energy | The mean kinetic energy of all atoms in a system, which characterizes the temperature of that system. |
| collisions | Interactions between gas atoms or between atoms and container surfaces that involve the exchange of momentum and forces. |
| conservation of momentum | A principle stating that the total momentum of an isolated system remains constant in the absence of external forces. |
| ideal gas | A theoretical gas whose atoms follow the kinetic theory model and obey the relationship between temperature, kinetic energy, and molecular speed. |
| Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution | A graphical representation showing the distribution of energies and speeds of atoms at a given temperature. |
| perpendicular components | The components of forces exerted by gas atoms that are directed perpendicular to a surface, which contribute to pressure. |
| pressure | The force per unit area exerted by a gas on a surface, resulting from collisions of gas atoms with that surface. |
| root-mean-square speed | The speed corresponding to the average kinetic energy of atoms in an ideal gas, related to temperature by the equation v_rms = √(3k_B T/m). |
| temperature | A measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms within a system. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absolute zero | The temperature at which an ideal gas would have zero pressure, extrapolated from a graph of pressure versus temperature. |
| elastic collision | A collision between gas atoms in which kinetic energy is conserved, a key assumption in the ideal gas model. |
| ideal gas | A theoretical gas whose atoms follow the kinetic theory model and obey the relationship between temperature, kinetic energy, and molecular speed. |
| instantaneous velocities | The random velocities of individual gas atoms at any given moment, assumed to vary randomly in the ideal gas model. |
| moles | A unit of measurement for the amount of substance, representing the number of particles in a gas sample used in the ideal gas law. |
| pressure | The force per unit area exerted by a gas on a surface, resulting from collisions of gas atoms with that surface. |
| temperature | A measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms within a system. |
| volume | The space occupied by a gas, one of the key variables in the ideal gas law. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conduction | A thermal process by which energy is transferred between systems or within a system through direct contact without bulk motion of material. |
| convection | A thermal process by which energy is transferred through the bulk motion of a fluid (liquid or gas). |
| cooling | The transfer of energy out of a system through thermal processes. |
| heating | The transfer of energy into a system through thermal processes. |
| radiation | A thermal process by which energy is transferred through electromagnetic waves without requiring a medium. |
| temperature difference | The difference in thermal energy between two systems that drives the spontaneous transfer of energy from the higher-temperature system to the lower-temperature system. |
| thermal contact | A condition where two systems are positioned such that thermal processes can transfer energy between them. |
| thermal equilibrium | A state in which an object maintains a constant temperature and emits energy at the same rate it absorbs energy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| adiabatic process | A thermodynamic process in which no energy is transferred to or from the system through thermal processes. |
| center of mass | The point that represents the average position of all the mass in a system. |
| closed system | A system that can exchange energy with its surroundings but not matter. |
| conservative forces | Forces for which the work done is independent of the path taken, such as gravitational and electrostatic forces. |
| first law of thermodynamics | A restatement of conservation of energy that accounts for energy transferred into or out of a system by work, heating, or cooling. |
| ideal gas | A theoretical gas whose atoms follow the kinetic theory model and obey the relationship between temperature, kinetic energy, and molecular speed. |
| internal energy | The sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy of all the objects and their configurations that make up a system. |
| isobaric process | A thermodynamic process in which the pressure of a system remains constant. |
| isolated system | A system that does not exchange energy or matter with its surroundings. |
| isotherm | A line of constant temperature on a pressure-volume diagram. |
| isothermal process | A thermodynamic process in which the temperature of a system remains constant. |
| isovolumetric process | A thermodynamic process in which the volume of a system remains constant. |
| kinetic energy | The energy of motion possessed by an object due to its velocity. |
| monatomic gas | An ideal gas composed of single atoms rather than molecules. |
| potential energy | The energy stored in the configuration or arrangement of objects within a system. |
| PV diagram | A pressure-volume graph used to represent and visualize thermodynamic processes. |
| thermodynamic processes | Processes that describe how a system changes in terms of pressure, volume, temperature, and internal energy. |
| work done on a system | Energy transferred to a system through mechanical means, calculated as W = -PΔV for constant or average external pressure. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conduction | A thermal process by which energy is transferred between systems or within a system through direct contact without bulk motion of material. |
| intrinsic property | A characteristic of a material that is independent of the amount of material present and depends on the arrangement and interactions of its atoms. |
| rate of energy transfer | The amount of thermal energy transferred per unit time, measured in watts or joules per second. |
| specific heat | An intrinsic property of a material that quantifies the amount of energy required to change the temperature of a unit mass of that material by one degree. |
| temperature change | The difference in temperature of an object, represented as ΔT, which is directly related to the energy required to heat or cool the object. |
| temperature difference | The difference in thermal energy between two systems that drives the spontaneous transfer of energy from the higher-temperature system to the lower-temperature system. |
| thermal conductivity | An intrinsic property of a material that describes how readily heat energy is transferred through it by conduction. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| closed system | A system that can exchange energy with its surroundings but not matter. |
| entropy | A measure of the tendency of energy to spread out or disperse, and the unavailability of some of a system's energy to do work. |
| isolated system | A system that does not exchange energy or matter with its surroundings. |
| localized energy | Energy concentrated in a specific region or form that tends to disperse and spread out over time. |
| reversible process | A process in which a system can return to its original state without any net change in entropy of the universe. |
| second law of thermodynamics | The principle stating that the total entropy of an isolated system can never decrease and remains constant only when all processes are reversible. |
| state function | A property of a system that depends only on the current state or configuration of the system, not on how the system reached that state. |
| thermodynamic equilibrium | The state in which a system has maximum entropy and no net changes occur in its macroscopic properties. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| attractive force | The electrostatic force exerted between two objects with opposite charges, pulling them together. |
| charge | A fundamental property of matter that can be positive or negative, determining how objects interact electromagnetically. |
| charge carrier | Particles that carry electric charge through a medium, such as electrons in a wire. |
| conductor | A material through which electric charge can move, with resistivity that typically increases with temperature. |
| contact forces | Nonfundamental forces such as normal force, friction, and tension that result from the combined effect of many electric interactions between particles. |
| Coulomb's law | The law stating that the electrostatic force between two charged objects is directly proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. |
| electric field | A vector quantity that represents the electric force per unit charge exerted at a given point in space, originating from charged objects. |
| electric force | The force exerted on a charged object by an electric field. |
| electric permittivity | A measurement of the degree to which a material or medium is polarized in the presence of an electric field. |
| electric polarization | The induced rearrangement of electrons by an external electric field, resulting in a separation of positive and negative charges within a material or medium. |
| electrically neutral | A state in which an object or system has equal amounts of positive and negative charge, resulting in no net electric charge. |
| electrostatic force | The force exerted between charged objects due to their electric charges, described by Coulomb's law and dependent on the magnitude and signs of the charges. |
| elementary charge | The magnitude of charge carried by a single electron or proton, denoted as e, representing the smallest indivisible amount of charge. |
| free space | A vacuum or empty space with a constant value of electric permittivity denoted as ε₀. |
| gravitational force | Forces that result from the mass of objects and are always attractive in nature. |
| insulator | Materials that do not allow electric charge to move freely and can retain charge in localized regions. |
| point charge | An idealized model of a charged object treated as having all its charge concentrated at a single location in space. |
| repulsive force | The electrostatic force exerted between two objects with charges of the same sign, pushing them apart. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| charge distribution | The spatial arrangement or pattern of electric charges within a system or on an object. |
| conservation of charge | The principle that the total electric charge in an isolated system remains constant over time. |
| contact | A process by which charge can be transferred between two systems through direct touching. |
| electron | Negatively charged particles that serve as the primary charge carriers in most common electrical circuits. |
| electrostatic force | The force exerted between charged objects due to their electric charges, described by Coulomb's law and dependent on the magnitude and signs of the charges. |
| friction | A process by which charge can be transferred between two systems through rubbing or contact. |
| grounding | The process of electrically connecting a charged system to a much larger neutral system, such as Earth, to neutralize its charge. |
| induced charge separation | The redistribution of charges within a neutral or charged system caused by the electrostatic force from a nearby charged object, resulting in polarization. |
| net charge | The total amount of electric charge in a system, calculated as the sum of all positive and negative charges. |
| polarization | The process by which charges within a neutral system become separated, with positive charges shifting in one direction and negative charges in another. |
| transfer of charge | The movement of electric charge from one system to another, typically involving the movement of electrons. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| charged conductors | Materials that allow electric charge to move freely throughout them and can be given a net electric charge. |
| charged object | An object that possesses electric charge and can interact with electric and magnetic fields. |
| electric field | A vector quantity that represents the electric force per unit charge exerted at a given point in space, originating from charged objects. |
| electric field line diagrams | Simplified models of electric field maps that use lines to represent the direction and relative magnitude of the electric field. |
| electric force | The force exerted on a charged object by an electric field. |
| electrostatic equilibrium | A state in which charges are at rest and there is no net motion of charge within a conductor or insulator. |
| excess charge | The net charge on an object beyond its neutral state. |
| insulator | Materials that do not allow electric charge to move freely and can retain charge in localized regions. |
| negative charge | A charge toward which electric field lines converge. |
| net electric field | The vector sum of individual electric fields created by multiple charged objects at a given location. |
| perpendicular to the surface | The orientation of the electric field at the surface of a charged conductor, pointing directly away from or toward the surface at a 90-degree angle. |
| point charge | An idealized model of a charged object treated as having all its charge concentrated at a single location in space. |
| positive charge | A charge from which electric field lines radiate outward. |
| spherically symmetric charge distribution | A charge arrangement that is uniform in all directions from a central point, such as on a sphere. |
| surface charge distribution | The arrangement of electric charge on the outer surface of a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium. |
| test charge | A point charge of small enough magnitude that its presence does not significantly affect the electric field it is used to measure. |
| vector field map | A visual representation showing vectors at various points in space to illustrate the magnitude and direction of a field quantity. |
| vector quantity | A physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conductor | A material through which electric charge can move, with resistivity that typically increases with temperature. |
| configuration of charged objects | An arrangement of multiple charged particles or objects whose combined electric potential can be determined. |
| electric field | A vector quantity that represents the electric force per unit charge exerted at a given point in space, originating from charged objects. |
| electric field vector map | A representation of an electric field using vectors to show the magnitude and direction of the field at various points in space. |
| electric potential | A scalar quantity that represents the electric potential energy per unit charge at a point in space, measured in volts. |
| electric potential difference | The difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points in a circuit, measured in volts; also called voltage. |
| electrical contact | A physical connection between conductors that allows charge redistribution. |
| equipotential line | Lines in space that connect points of equal electric potential; also called isolines of electric potential. |
| isoline | Lines that connect points of equal value of a quantity; in this context, lines of equal electric potential. |
| isoline map | A representation of a field using lines that connect points of equal potential or other equal values. |
| point charge | An idealized model of a charged object treated as having all its charge concentrated at a single location in space. |
| scalar superposition | The principle that the total electric potential at a point due to multiple point charges is the sum of the potentials due to each individual charge. |
| test charge | A point charge of small enough magnitude that its presence does not significantly affect the electric field it is used to measure. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| capacitance | A measure of the ability of a capacitor to store charge, defined as the ratio of the magnitude of charge stored on each plate to the electric potential difference between them. |
| charge | A fundamental property of matter that can be positive or negative, determining how objects interact electromagnetically. |
| constant acceleration | Motion in which the velocity changes at a constant rate, as experienced by a charged particle between oppositely charged parallel plates. |
| dielectric | An insulating material placed between the plates of a capacitor that can be polarized by an electric field and increases the capacitance. |
| dielectric constant | A dimensionless property of a material that describes how effectively it can be polarized by an electric field; represented by the symbol κ. |
| electric field | A vector quantity that represents the electric force per unit charge exerted at a given point in space, originating from charged objects. |
| electric permittivity of free space | A fundamental physical constant that describes the ability of empty space to support an electric field; represented by the symbol ε₀. |
| electric potential difference | The difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points in a circuit, measured in volts; also called voltage. |
| electric potential energy | The energy stored in a system due to the position of a charged object in an electric field, dependent on the charge and electric potential. |
| parallel-plate capacitor | A capacitor consisting of two separated parallel conducting surfaces that hold equal amounts of charge with opposite signs. |
| plate area | The surface area of one of the conducting plates in a parallel-plate capacitor. |
| plate separation | The distance between the two parallel conducting plates in a capacitor. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| charged object | An object that possesses electric charge and can interact with electric and magnetic fields. |
| conservation of energy | The principle that the total energy in an isolated system remains constant, with energy transforming between different forms but not being created or destroyed. |
| electric potential | A scalar quantity that represents the electric potential energy per unit charge at a point in space, measured in volts. |
| electric potential energy | The energy stored in a system due to the position of a charged object in an electric field, dependent on the charge and electric potential. |
| kinetic energy | The energy of motion possessed by an object due to its velocity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| charge | A fundamental property of matter that can be positive or negative, determining how objects interact electromagnetically. |
| charge carrier | Particles that carry electric charge through a medium, such as electrons in a wire. |
| conventional current | The direction of electric current flow defined as the movement of positive charges from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a power source. |
| current | The flow of electric charge through a conductor, measured in amperes (A). |
| electric potential difference | The difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points in a circuit, measured in volts; also called voltage. |
| electromotive force | The energy per unit charge provided by a source such as a battery to move charge through a circuit; abbreviated as emf (ε). |
| electron | Negatively charged particles that serve as the primary charge carriers in most common electrical circuits. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| circuit | A closed or open path composed of electrical loops and circuit elements through which electric charge may flow. |
| circuit element | A component in an electric circuit, such as a resistor or bulb, through which current flows and across which a potential difference exists. |
| circuit schematic | A diagram used to represent and analyze electric circuits using standardized symbols for circuit elements. |
| closed circuit | A circuit in which charges are able to flow through a complete path. |
| conventional current | The direction of electric current flow defined as the movement of positive charges from the positive terminal to the negative terminal of a power source. |
| electric potential difference | The difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points in a circuit, measured in volts; also called voltage. |
| electrical loop | A closed path in a circuit through which charges may flow. |
| open circuit | A circuit in which charges are not able to flow due to a break in the path. |
| short circuit | A circuit in which charges flow with no change in potential difference. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| charge | A fundamental property of matter that can be positive or negative, determining how objects interact electromagnetically. |
| conductor | A material through which electric charge can move, with resistivity that typically increases with temperature. |
| cross-sectional area | The area of a cross-section of a conductor, which is inversely proportional to its resistance. |
| current | The flow of electric charge through a conductor, measured in amperes (A). |
| electric potential difference | The difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points in a circuit, measured in volts; also called voltage. |
| electrical characteristics | The properties of circuit elements that describe how they respond to and affect electric current and voltage, including resistance and conductivity. |
| Ohm's law | The relationship stating that current through a conductive element is directly proportional to the potential difference across it and inversely proportional to its resistance (I = ΔV/R). |
| ohmic materials | Materials that obey Ohm's law and maintain constant resistance regardless of the current flowing through them. |
| resistance | The opposition to the flow of electric current through a material or circuit element. |
| resistivity | An intrinsic property of a material that measures its resistance to electric current flow; remains constant for ohmic materials regardless of temperature. |
| resistor | Circuit elements designed to provide resistance to current flow and convert electrical energy into thermal energy. |
| thermal energy | The energy produced when a resistor converts electrical energy, which can increase the temperature of the resistor and its surroundings. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| brightness | The luminous intensity of a bulb, which increases with the power dissipated by the bulb. |
| circuit element | A component in an electric circuit, such as a resistor or bulb, through which current flows and across which a potential difference exists. |
| current | The flow of electric charge through a conductor, measured in amperes (A). |
| electric potential difference | The difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points in a circuit, measured in volts; also called voltage. |
| energy transfer | The movement of energy into, out of, or within an electric circuit through the work done by electric forces. |
| power | The rate at which energy is transferred, converted, or dissipated in an electric circuit, measured in watts. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| closed loop | A complete path in a circuit that starts and ends at the same point, allowing current to flow continuously. |
| conservation of energy | The principle that the total energy in an isolated system remains constant, with energy transforming between different forms but not being created or destroyed. |
| electric potential | A scalar quantity that represents the electric potential energy per unit charge at a point in space, measured in volts. |
| electric potential difference | The difference in electric potential energy per unit charge between two points in a circuit, measured in volts; also called voltage. |
| Kirchhoff's loop rule | A principle stating that the sum of potential differences across all circuit elements in a single closed loop must equal zero, based on conservation of energy. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| conservation of charge | The principle that the total electric charge in an isolated system remains constant over time. |
| current | The flow of electric charge through a conductor, measured in amperes (A). |
| junction | A point in a circuit where two or more conductors meet, allowing current to split or combine. |
| Kirchhoff's junction rule | A principle stating that the total electric charge entering a junction per unit time equals the total charge exiting that junction per unit time, based on conservation of electric charge. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| capacitor in parallel | Capacitors connected with all positive plates connected together and all negative plates connected together, where the equivalent capacitance equals the sum of individual capacitances. |
| capacitor in series | Capacitors connected end-to-end in a single path, where the same charge accumulates on each capacitor and the equivalent capacitance is less than the smallest individual capacitance. |
| charging capacitor | A capacitor in a circuit that is accumulating charge on its plates, with increasing potential difference and decreasing current over time until reaching steady state. |
| conservation of charge | The principle that the total electric charge in an isolated system remains constant over time. |
| discharging capacitor | A capacitor in a circuit that is releasing stored charge from its plates, with decreasing potential difference, charge, and current over time until reaching steady state. |
| electric potential energy stored in the capacitor | The energy stored in a capacitor due to the separation of charge on its plates, which changes during charging and discharging and approaches a constant value at steady state. |
| equivalent capacitance | The single capacitance value that can replace a collection of capacitors in a circuit while maintaining the same electrical behavior. |
| fully charged | The state of a capacitor after a long charging time when it has reached maximum potential difference and zero current flows in the circuit branch containing it. |
| potential difference across a capacitor | The voltage between the plates of a capacitor, which changes over time during charging and discharging and asymptotically approaches a steady-state value. |
| RC circuit | A circuit containing a resistor and capacitor in combination, where the capacitor charges or discharges through the resistor over time. |
| steady state | A condition reached after a long time interval where the potential difference across a capacitor and current in the circuit branch remain constant. |
| time constant | A measure of how quickly a capacitor charges or discharges in an RC circuit, defined as τ = R_eq × C_eq, representing the time for charge to reach approximately 63% of final value when charging or 37% of initial value when discharging. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| bar magnet | A permanent magnet with distinct north and south poles that produces a magnetic field with closed field lines. |
| diamagnetism | A property of all materials in which their electronic structure creates a weak alignment of dipole moments opposite to an external magnetic field. |
| Earth's magnetic field | The magnetic field generated by Earth that can be approximated as a magnetic dipole field. |
| external magnetic field | A magnetic field applied to a material from an outside source. |
| ferromagnetic material | Materials such as iron, nickel, and cobalt that can be permanently magnetized by an external field through alignment of magnetic domains. |
| free space | A vacuum or empty space with a constant value of electric permittivity denoted as ε₀. |
| induced magnetism | A system property resulting from the alignment of magnetic dipoles within a material in response to an external magnetic field. |
| magnetic dipole | A pair of equal and opposite magnetic poles that together produce a magnetic field. |
| magnetic domain | Regions within a ferromagnetic material where atomic magnetic dipoles are aligned in the same direction. |
| magnetic field | A vector field that exerts a force on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials. |
| magnetic field line | Lines used to represent the direction and strength of a magnetic field; they form closed loops and never begin or end. |
| magnetic force | The force exerted by a magnetic field on a moving electric charge, electric current, or magnetic material. |
| magnetic monopole | A hypothetical isolated magnetic charge that does not exist in nature; magnetic fields are only produced by dipoles. |
| magnetic permeability | A measurement of the amount of magnetization in a material in response to an external magnetic field. |
| magnetic pole | The regions at the ends of a magnetic dipole where magnetic field lines emerge (north pole) or enter (south pole). |
| magnetization | The process by which a material becomes magnetized in response to an external magnetic field. |
| north pole | The end of a magnetic dipole from which magnetic field lines point outward. |
| paramagnetic material | Materials such as aluminum, titanium, and magnesium that interact weakly with an external magnetic field and do not retain alignment after the field is removed. |
| permanent magnetism | A system property resulting from the alignment of magnetic dipoles within a material that persists without an external magnetic field. |
| south pole | The end of a magnetic dipole to which magnetic field lines return. |
| vacuum permeability | The constant value of magnetic permeability in free space, represented by the symbol μ₀, that appears in equations representing physical relationships. |
| vector field | A representation of a field where each point in space is assigned a vector quantity, such as direction and magnitude. |
| vector field map | A visual representation showing vectors at various points in space to illustrate the magnitude and direction of a field quantity. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| charge | A fundamental property of matter that can be positive or negative, determining how objects interact electromagnetically. |
| charged object | An object that possesses electric charge and can interact with electric and magnetic fields. |
| conductor | A material through which electric charge can move, with resistivity that typically increases with temperature. |
| electric field | A vector quantity that represents the electric force per unit charge exerted at a given point in space, originating from charged objects. |
| Hall effect | The phenomenon in which a potential difference is created across a conductor when an external magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of charge motion is applied. |
| magnetic field | A vector field that exerts a force on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials. |
| magnetic force | The force exerted by a magnetic field on a moving electric charge, electric current, or magnetic material. |
| perpendicular | At a 90-degree angle; the magnetic field direction is perpendicular to both the velocity vector and the position vector from the charged object. |
| position vector | A vector drawn from a moving charged object to a point in space, used to determine the magnetic field direction at that point. |
| right-hand rule | A method for determining the direction of magnetic force, current, or magnetic field using the orientation of the right hand. |
| velocity | The rate and direction of motion of a charged object, which affects the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field it produces. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| concentric circle | Circles that share the same center point, used to represent the geometry of magnetic field lines around a straight wire. |
| current-carrying loop | A circular or closed path through which electric current flows, producing a magnetic field along its axis. |
| current-carrying wire | A conductor through which electric current flows, producing a magnetic field around it. |
| magnetic field | A vector field that exerts a force on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials. |
| magnetic field vector | Arrows representing the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field at specific points in space. |
| magnetic force | The force exerted by a magnetic field on a moving electric charge, electric current, or magnetic material. |
| perpendicular distance | The shortest distance from a point to a line or surface, measured at a right angle. |
| right-hand rule | A method for determining the direction of magnetic force, current, or magnetic field using the orientation of the right hand. |
| vector addition | The mathematical process of combining two or more vectors to find a resultant vector, used to determine net magnetic fields from multiple sources. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| area vector | A vector perpendicular to a surface with magnitude equal to the surface's area, used to calculate magnetic flux. |
| conducting rail | Parallel conductors that form a track along which a conducting rod can move in a magnetic field to generate an induced emf. |
| conducting rod | A rod made of material that allows electric current to flow freely, used in electromagnetic induction applications. |
| cross-sectional area | The area of a cross-section of a conductor, which is inversely proportional to its resistance. |
| Faraday's law | The principle that an induced emf in a circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit. |
| induced electric potential difference | The voltage generated in a conductor or circuit due to a change in magnetic flux through it. |
| induced emf | The electromotive force generated in a conductor or circuit due to a changing magnetic flux. |
| Lenz's law | The principle that an induced emf creates a current whose magnetic field opposes the change in magnetic flux that produced it. |
| magnetic field | A vector field that exerts a force on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials. |
| magnetic flux | A measure of the amount of magnetic field passing through a surface, proportional to the perpendicular component of the magnetic field and the cross-sectional area. |
| right-hand rule | A method for determining the direction of magnetic force, current, or magnetic field using the orientation of the right hand. |
| uniform magnetic field | A magnetic field that has the same magnitude and direction at all points in a region of space. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| angle of incidence | The angle between an incident ray and the normal to a surface. |
| angle of reflection | The angle between a reflected ray and the normal to a surface. |
| coherent | Describing light waves that maintain a constant phase relationship, as produced by a laser. |
| diffraction | The spreading of a wave around the edges of an obstacle or through an opening. |
| diffuse reflection | The reflection of light from a rough surface that scatters light in many different directions due to varying surface normals. |
| geometric optics | The study of light behavior using ray diagrams, where the wave nature of light can be neglected. |
| incident ray | A ray of light traveling toward and striking a surface. |
| interference | The phenomenon where the wave nature of light is important and cannot be neglected, involving the superposition of light waves. |
| law of reflection | The principle stating that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, both measured from the normal to the surface. |
| light ray | A straight line that is perpendicular to the wavefront of a light wave and points in the direction of travel of the wave. |
| monochromatic | Light consisting of a single wavelength or frequency, as produced by a laser. |
| normal | An imaginary line perpendicular to a surface at the point where a light ray strikes it. |
| ray diagram | A diagram that depicts the path of light before and after an interaction with matter. |
| reflected ray | A ray of light that bounces off a surface after reflection. |
| reflection | The bouncing of light off a surface back into the medium from which it came. |
| rough surface | A surface with irregularities that cause diffuse reflection of light. |
| smooth surface | A surface with minimal irregularities that causes specular reflection of light. |
| specular reflection | The reflection of light from a smooth surface that reflects light uniformly in a single direction due to a constant surface normal. |
| wavefront | A surface of constant phase in a propagating wave, perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| center of curvature | The center point of the sphere from which a spherical mirror is curved, located on the principal axis at a distance equal to twice the focal length. |
| concave mirror | A converging mirror with a curved surface that reflects inward, causing parallel light rays to converge at a focal point. |
| convex mirror | A diverging mirror with a curved surface that reflects outward, causing parallel light rays to appear to diverge from a focal point behind the mirror. |
| focal length | The distance from the mirror's surface to its focal point, which determines the location of images formed by the mirror. |
| focal point | The point where reflected light rays converge (for concave mirrors) or appear to originate (for convex and plane mirrors). |
| inverted image | An image that is flipped relative to the object's orientation. |
| magnification | The ratio of the size of an image produced by a mirror to the size of the object, indicating whether the image is enlarged, reduced, or the same size. |
| plane mirror | A flat mirror that reflects light rays such that the focal point is located at an infinite distance from the mirror. |
| principal axis | The line passing through the center of a mirror perpendicular to its surface, used as a reference for describing light ray behavior. |
| principal rays | Three specific light rays used in ray diagrams: the ray parallel to the principal axis, the ray reflecting at the center of the mirror, and the ray passing through the focal point. |
| ray diagram | A diagram that depicts the path of light before and after an interaction with matter. |
| real image | An image formed when reflected light rays from a common point intersect at another common point, which can be projected onto a screen. |
| sign conventions | A system of rules used to determine the signs of distances and other quantities relative to the mirror's position and orientation. |
| upright image | An image that has the same orientation as the object. |
| virtual image | An image formed when reflected light rays diverge such that they appear to have originated from a common point behind the mirror. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| angle of incidence | The angle between an incident ray and the normal to a surface. |
| angle of refraction | The angle between a refracted light ray and the normal to a surface. |
| critical angle | The minimum angle of incidence at which total internal reflection occurs when light travels from a medium with higher index of refraction to one with lower index of refraction. |
| index of refraction | A measure of how much a medium slows down light compared to its speed in vacuum, determining the degree of bending and reflection of light at interfaces. |
| normal | An imaginary line perpendicular to a surface at the point where a light ray strikes it. |
| refraction | The change in direction of a light ray as it passes from one medium into another. |
| Snell's law | The law relating the angles of incidence and refraction of a light ray passing between two media to their respective indices of refraction, expressed as n₁ sin θ₁ = n₂ sin θ₂. |
| total internal reflection | The complete reflection of light back into a medium when light traveling from a denser medium strikes the boundary with a less dense medium at an angle greater than the critical angle. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| concave lens | A lens that curves inward and causes parallel light rays to diverge as if they originated from a focal point. |
| convex lens | A lens that curves outward on both sides and converges parallel light rays toward a focal point. |
| focal length | The distance from the mirror's surface to its focal point, which determines the location of images formed by the mirror. |
| focal point | The point where reflected light rays converge (for concave mirrors) or appear to originate (for convex and plane mirrors). |
| inverted image | An image that is flipped relative to the object's orientation. |
| magnification | The ratio of the size of an image produced by a mirror to the size of the object, indicating whether the image is enlarged, reduced, or the same size. |
| principal axis | The line passing through the center of a mirror perpendicular to its surface, used as a reference for describing light ray behavior. |
| principal rays | Three specific light rays used in ray diagrams: the ray parallel to the principal axis, the ray reflecting at the center of the mirror, and the ray passing through the focal point. |
| ray diagram | A diagram that depicts the path of light before and after an interaction with matter. |
| real image | An image formed when reflected light rays from a common point intersect at another common point, which can be projected onto a screen. |
| sign conventions | A system of rules used to determine the signs of distances and other quantities relative to the mirror's position and orientation. |
| thin lens | A lens whose thickness is negligible compared to its focal length, allowing the use of simplified equations to describe image formation. |
| thin-lens equation | The equation 1/s_i + 1/s_o = 1/f that relates the image distance, object distance, and focal length of a thin lens. |
| upright image | An image that has the same orientation as the object. |
| virtual image | An image formed when reflected light rays diverge such that they appear to have originated from a common point behind the mirror. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| amplitude | The maximum displacement of a wave from its equilibrium position. |
| compression | A region of high pressure in a longitudinal wave such as a sound wave. |
| electromagnetic wave | A wave consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are mutually perpendicular and can propagate without requiring a medium. |
| equilibrium position | The position of a particle in a wave when it is at rest with no disturbance. |
| frequency | The number of complete wave cycles that pass a point per unit time. |
| longitudinal wave | A wave in which particles oscillate parallel to the direction of wave propagation. |
| mechanical wave | A wave that requires a medium to propagate, such as sound or waves on a string. |
| medium | A material or substance through which a wave travels. |
| rarefaction | A region of low pressure in a longitudinal wave such as a sound wave. |
| sound wave | A mechanical longitudinal wave that propagates through a medium and can be heard. |
| transverse wave | A wave in which the oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation. |
| wave | A continuous, periodic disturbance that transfers energy between two locations without transferring matter. |
| wave pulse | A single disturbance that transfers energy without transferring matter between two locations. |
| wavelength | The distance between consecutive points of the same phase in a wave, typically denoted by λ. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| amplitude | The maximum displacement of a wave from its equilibrium position. |
| equilibrium | The position or state where a wave has zero displacement. |
| frequency | The number of complete wave cycles that pass a point per unit time. |
| period | The time required for one complete oscillation or cycle of a wave. |
| periodic wave | A wave that repeats its pattern at regular intervals in space and time. |
| pitch | The perceived quality of a sound that is related to the frequency of the sound wave. |
| sinusoidal wave | A wave whose displacement can be described by a sine or cosine function. |
| wave speed | The velocity at which a wave propagates through a medium. |
| wavelength | The distance between consecutive points of the same phase in a wave, typically denoted by λ. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| boundary | The interface between two different media where wave interaction occurs. |
| frequency | The number of complete wave cycles that pass a point per unit time. |
| intensity | A measure of the average power transferred by a wave per unit area over one period. |
| longitudinal wave | A wave in which particles oscillate parallel to the direction of wave propagation. |
| medium | A material or substance through which a wave travels. |
| polarization | The process by which charges within a neutral system become separated, with positive charges shifting in one direction and negative charges in another. |
| power | The rate at which energy is transferred, converted, or dissipated in an electric circuit, measured in watts. |
| reflected wave | A wave that bounces back from a boundary between two media. |
| transmitted wave | A wave that passes through a boundary and continues traveling into a new medium. |
| transverse wave | A wave in which the oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation. |
| wave inversion | A phase reversal of a reflected wave that occurs when the wave travels into a medium where the wave speed decreases. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| blue | A visible electromagnetic wave with a wavelength between green and violet. |
| electric field | A vector quantity that represents the electric force per unit charge exerted at a given point in space, originating from charged objects. |
| electromagnetic radiation | A collective term for all electromagnetic waves across the entire spectrum. |
| electromagnetic spectrum | The range of all types of electromagnetic waves ordered by wavelength, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. |
| electromagnetic wave | A wave consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are mutually perpendicular and can propagate without requiring a medium. |
| gamma rays | Electromagnetic waves with the shortest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum, measured in picometers. |
| green | A visible electromagnetic wave with a wavelength between yellow and blue. |
| infrared | Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths shorter than microwaves but longer than visible light. |
| magnetic field | A vector field that exerts a force on moving electric charges, electric currents, and magnetic materials. |
| microwaves | Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths shorter than radio waves but longer than infrared radiation. |
| orange | A visible electromagnetic wave with a wavelength between red and yellow. |
| plane wave | An electromagnetic wave characterized by planar wave fronts. |
| propagation | The process by which electromagnetic waves travel through space without requiring a medium. |
| radio waves | Electromagnetic waves with the longest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum, measured in kilometers. |
| red | The visible electromagnetic wave with the longest wavelength in the visible spectrum. |
| transverse wave | A wave in which the oscillations of the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the direction of propagation. |
| ultraviolet | Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths shorter than visible light but longer than X-rays. |
| violet | The visible electromagnetic wave with the shortest wavelength in the visible spectrum. |
| visible light | Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths that can be detected by the human eye, ranging from red to violet. |
| wave front | A surface of constant phase in a plane wave, perpendicular to the direction of propagation. |
| wavelength | The distance between consecutive points of the same phase in a wave, typically denoted by λ. |
| X-rays | Electromagnetic waves with wavelengths shorter than ultraviolet radiation but longer than gamma rays. |
| yellow | A visible electromagnetic wave with a wavelength between orange and green. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Doppler effect | The change in observed frequency of a wave due to relative motion between the source and observer. |
| observed frequency | The frequency of a wave as measured by an observer, which may differ from the rest frequency due to relative motion. |
| relative velocity | The velocity of the wave source with respect to the observer. |
| rest frequency | The frequency of a wave emitted by a source at rest relative to the observer. |
| wave source | An object or system that emits waves. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| amplitude | The maximum displacement of a wave from its equilibrium position. |
| amplitude variations | Periodic changes in the amplitude of a resultant wave when two or more traveling wave pulses or waves interact. |
| antinode | A point on a standing wave where the amplitude is always at maximum. |
| beat frequency | The difference between the frequencies of two waves, calculated as |f₁ - f₂|, which determines the rate of amplitude variations. |
| beats | Periodic amplitude variations that arise from the addition of two waves with slightly different frequencies. |
| constructive interference | The superposition of waves that results in a wave of greater amplitude, occurring when wavefronts are in phase. |
| destructive interference | The superposition of waves that results in a wave of reduced amplitude, occurring when wavefronts are out of phase. |
| fundamental | The standing wave with the longest possible wavelength, also called the first harmonic. |
| harmonic | A standing wave pattern characterized by a specific wavelength, numbered according to its rank from longest to shortest wavelength. |
| in phase | A condition where two waves have displacements in the same direction at the same location. |
| interference | The phenomenon where the wave nature of light is important and cannot be neglected, involving the superposition of light waves. |
| node | A point on a standing wave where the amplitude is always zero. |
| odd harmonics | Harmonic patterns that can be established in a standing wave with a node at one end and an antinode at the other end. |
| out of phase | A condition where two waves have displacements in opposite directions at the same location. |
| second harmonic | The standing wave with the second-longest possible wavelength. |
| standing wave | A wave pattern that results from interference between two waves traveling in opposite directions within a confined region, characterized by fixed points of zero and maximum amplitude. |
| superposition | The principle that when two or more waves overlap, the resulting displacement is determined by adding the individual displacements. |
| third harmonic | The standing wave with the third-longest possible wavelength. |
| wave interference | The interaction of two or more wave pulses or waves that overlap and travel through each other. |
| wave pulses | Individual disturbances that travel through a medium, characterized by a single peak or trough. |
| wavelength | The distance between consecutive points of the same phase in a wave, typically denoted by λ. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| central bright fringe | The brightest band at the center of a single-slit diffraction pattern, resulting from constructive interference. |
| constructive interference | The superposition of waves that results in a wave of greater amplitude, occurring when wavefronts are in phase. |
| destructive interference | The superposition of waves that results in a wave of reduced amplitude, occurring when wavefronts are out of phase. |
| diffraction | The spreading of a wave around the edges of an obstacle or through an opening. |
| diffraction pattern | The pattern of light and dark bands produced when a wave passes through an opening, resulting from interference of multiple wavefronts. |
| interference pattern | The observable pattern created by the superposition of multiple waves, resulting in regions of constructive and destructive interference. |
| monochromatic light | Light of a single wavelength or frequency. |
| path length difference | The difference in distances traveled by two wavefronts, denoted as ΔD, which determines the type of interference between them. |
| single-slit diffraction | The diffraction pattern produced when a wave passes through a single narrow opening. |
| small angle approximation | A mathematical approximation used when the angle θ is less than 10°, allowing simplified relationships between diffraction parameters. |
| wavefront | A surface of constant phase in a propagating wave, perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. |
| wavelength | The distance between consecutive points of the same phase in a wave, typically denoted by λ. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| center maximum | The central bright fringe in a diffraction pattern, where all wavelengths of white light interfere constructively and appear white. |
| central bright fringe | The brightest band at the center of a single-slit diffraction pattern, resulting from constructive interference. |
| constructive interference | The superposition of waves that results in a wave of greater amplitude, occurring when wavefronts are in phase. |
| destructive interference | The superposition of waves that results in a wave of reduced amplitude, occurring when wavefronts are out of phase. |
| diffraction grating | An optical device consisting of many evenly spaced parallel slits or openings that produce an interference pattern by superimposing numerous diffraction patterns. |
| diffraction pattern | The pattern of light and dark bands produced when a wave passes through an opening, resulting from interference of multiple wavefronts. |
| dispersion | The separation of white light into its component wavelengths or colors based on their different angles of diffraction. |
| higher-order maxima | Bright fringes in a diffraction pattern at positions beyond the central maximum, corresponding to m = 1, 2, 3, and so on. |
| monochromatic light | Light of a single wavelength or frequency. |
| order of maximum brightness | The integer m that designates the position of bright fringes in an interference pattern, where m = 0 for the central maximum, m = 1 for the first-order maximum, and so on. |
| path length difference | The difference in distances traveled by two wavefronts, denoted as ΔD, which determines the type of interference between them. |
| slit separation | The distance between two adjacent slits, represented by the symbol d. |
| small angle approximation | A mathematical approximation used when the angle θ is less than 10°, allowing simplified relationships between diffraction parameters. |
| wave diffraction | The bending and spreading of a wave as it passes through an opening or around an obstacle. |
| wave interference | The interaction of two or more wave pulses or waves that overlap and travel through each other. |
| wavefront | A surface of constant phase in a propagating wave, perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. |
| wavelength | The distance between consecutive points of the same phase in a wave, typically denoted by λ. |
| white light | Light composed of all visible wavelengths combined, appearing colorless. |
| Young's double-slit experiment | An experiment demonstrating wave properties of particles through the observation of interference patterns. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absorbed | Light that is taken in by a medium and converted to other forms of energy rather than being reflected or transmitted. |
| antireflection coating | A thin layer applied to a surface that uses destructive interference to eliminate reflected light by controlling thickness and index of refraction. |
| constructive interference | The superposition of waves that results in a wave of greater amplitude, occurring when wavefronts are in phase. |
| destructive interference | The superposition of waves that results in a wave of reduced amplitude, occurring when wavefronts are out of phase. |
| index of refraction | A measure of how much a medium slows down light compared to its speed in vacuum, determining the degree of bending and reflection of light at interfaces. |
| normal incidence | Light striking a surface at a perpendicular angle (90 degrees) to the surface. |
| oil films | A practical example of thin-film interference where spectrum colors are observed due to variations in film thickness. |
| phase change | A shift in the phase of a light wave upon reflection, which can be 180 degrees or zero degrees depending on the relative indices of refraction of the materials. |
| reflected ray | A ray of light that bounces off a surface after reflection. |
| refracted | The bending of light as it passes from one medium to another with a different index of refraction. |
| soap bubbles | A practical example of thin-film interference where color variations result from differences in film thickness. |
| thin film | A medium whose thickness is comparable to the wavelength of light, causing interference effects when light interacts with it. |
| thin-film interference | The wave interference pattern that occurs when light reflects from the two surfaces of a thin film, resulting in constructive or destructive interference. |
| transmitted | Light that passes through a medium rather than being reflected or absorbed. |
| wave interference | The interaction of two or more wave pulses or waves that overlap and travel through each other. |
| wavelength | The distance between consecutive points of the same phase in a wave, typically denoted by λ. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| atomic spectra | The characteristic pattern of discrete wavelengths of light emitted or absorbed by atoms, which quantum theory explains. |
| blackbody radiation | Electromagnetic radiation emitted by an idealized object that absorbs all incident radiation, explained by quantum theory. |
| de Broglie wavelength | The wavelength associated with a particle, calculated as λ = h/p, which increases as the particle's momentum decreases. |
| particle-like behavior | Properties of matter or energy that behave as discrete, localized objects with definite position and momentum, characteristic of particles. |
| photoelectric effect | The emission of electrons from a material when electromagnetic radiation is incident upon it. |
| photon | A discrete, quantized packet of electromagnetic energy that make up light, which is massless and electrically neutral, with energy proportional to its frequency. |
| quantized | Restricted to discrete, specific values rather than continuous values, as applied to energy and momentum in bound quantum systems. |
| quantum theory | The branch of physics that describes the behavior of matter and energy at atomic and subatomic scales, explaining phenomena that classical mechanics cannot. |
| wave-like behavior | Properties of matter or energy that exhibit characteristics of waves, such as interference and diffraction patterns. |
| Young's double-slit experiment | An experiment demonstrating wave properties of particles through the observation of interference patterns. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| atom | The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element, consisting of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. |
| atomic element | A pure substance consisting of atoms with the same unique number of protons. |
| Bohr model | A historical model of atomic structure in which electrons move in circular orbits around the nucleus at specific energy levels determined by classical physics. |
| circular orbit | In the Bohr model, the path an electron follows around the nucleus, determined by the electron's charge, mass, and the electric force between the electron and nucleus. |
| de Broglie wavelength | The wavelength associated with a particle, calculated as λ = h/p, which increases as the particle's momentum decreases. |
| discrete energy states | Specific, quantized energy levels that an electron can occupy in an atom, as described by the Bohr model. |
| electric force | The force exerted on a charged object by an electric field. |
| electron | Negatively charged particles that serve as the primary charge carriers in most common electrical circuits. |
| ion | An atom with a nonzero net electric charge due to the loss or gain of electrons. |
| isotope | An atom of an element with a specific number of neutrons and protons that distinguishes it from other atoms of the same element. |
| neutron | A neutrally charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. |
| nuclear notation | A symbolic representation showing the number of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus. |
| nucleus | The small, positively charged central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons. |
| proton | A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. |
| standing wave model | A model of electrons in atoms where the electron orbit's circumference must be an integer multiple of the electron's de Broglie wavelength, accounting for allowed energy states. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| absorption spectrum | The pattern of specific frequencies of light absorbed by an element when electrons transition to higher energy states. |
| atom | The smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element, consisting of a nucleus surrounded by electrons. |
| binding energy | The energy required to remove an electron from an atom and cause ionization. |
| electron | Negatively charged particles that serve as the primary charge carriers in most common electrical circuits. |
| emission spectrum | The pattern of specific frequencies of light emitted by an element when electrons transition to lower energy states. |
| energy level diagram | A visual representation showing the allowed energy states of an atom and transitions between them. |
| energy state | A specific energy level that an electron can occupy in an atom. |
| excited state | An energy state of an atom higher than the ground state, which an electron occupies after absorbing energy. |
| frequency | The number of complete wave cycles that pass a point per unit time. |
| ground state | The lowest energy level of an atom, where an electron requires the most energy to be removed. |
| interaction energy | The energy associated with the interaction between an electron and the nucleus in an atom. |
| ionization | The process of removing an electron from an atom, resulting in a charged ion. |
| nucleus | The small, positively charged central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons. |
| photon | A discrete, quantized packet of electromagnetic energy that make up light, which is massless and electrically neutral, with energy proportional to its frequency. |
| wavelength | The distance between consecutive points of the same phase in a wave, typically denoted by λ. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| blackbody | An idealized object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation incident upon it and emits radiation based solely on its temperature. |
| continuous spectrum | A spectrum of electromagnetic radiation with all wavelengths present, emitted by a blackbody and dependent only on temperature. |
| electromagnetic radiation | A collective term for all electromagnetic waves across the entire spectrum. |
| intensity per unit wavelength | The amount of electromagnetic radiation energy emitted at each wavelength, used to characterize a blackbody's spectrum. |
| internal thermal energy | The total kinetic and potential energy of particles within an object due to its temperature. |
| peak wavelength | The wavelength at which a blackbody emits the maximum intensity of radiation per unit wavelength. |
| Planck's law | A fundamental law describing the spectral distribution of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a blackbody, based on the quantization of light energy. |
| power | The rate at which energy is transferred, converted, or dissipated in an electric circuit, measured in watts. |
| quantized energy | Energy that exists in discrete packets or quanta rather than continuous amounts. |
| Stefan-Boltzmann law | A law stating that the total power radiated by a blackbody is proportional to its surface area and the fourth power of its absolute temperature. |
| thermal equilibrium | A state in which an object maintains a constant temperature and emits energy at the same rate it absorbs energy. |
| Wien's law | A law stating that the peak wavelength of radiation emitted by a blackbody is inversely proportional to its absolute temperature. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| electromagnetic radiation | A collective term for all electromagnetic waves across the entire spectrum. |
| kinetic energy | The energy of motion possessed by an object due to its velocity. |
| monochromatic light | Light of a single wavelength or frequency. |
| photoelectric effect | The emission of electrons from a material when electromagnetic radiation is incident upon it. |
| photon | A discrete, quantized packet of electromagnetic energy that make up light, which is massless and electrically neutral, with energy proportional to its frequency. |
| threshold frequency | The minimum frequency of incident light required to cause electron emission from a material via the photoelectric effect. |
| work function | The minimum energy required to emit an electron from atoms in a material, represented by the symbol φ. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Compton effect | The phenomenon in which a photon emerges from an interaction with an electron with lower energy and longer wavelength than the incoming photon. |
| Compton scattering | An interaction between a photon and a free electron in which the photon transfers energy and momentum to the electron, resulting in a photon with lower energy and longer wavelength. |
| conservation of energy | The principle that the total energy in an isolated system remains constant, with energy transforming between different forms but not being created or destroyed. |
| conservation of momentum | A principle stating that the total momentum of an isolated system remains constant in the absence of external forces. |
| energy | The capacity to do work; in Compton scattering, energy is transferred from the photon to the electron. |
| free electron | An electron that is not bound to an atom and can interact with a photon in Compton scattering. |
| frequency | The number of complete wave cycles that pass a point per unit time. |
| momentum | The product of mass and velocity; in Compton scattering, momentum is transferred from the photon to the electron. |
| photon | A discrete, quantized packet of electromagnetic energy that make up light, which is massless and electrically neutral, with energy proportional to its frequency. |
| wavelength | The distance between consecutive points of the same phase in a wave, typically denoted by λ. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| binding energy | The energy required to remove an electron from an atom and cause ionization. |
| conservation of energy | The principle that the total energy in an isolated system remains constant, with energy transforming between different forms but not being created or destroyed. |
| conservation of momentum | A principle stating that the total momentum of an isolated system remains constant in the absence of external forces. |
| decay constant | A parameter (λ) that characterizes the rate of radioactive decay and can be related to half-life through the equation λ = ln(2)/t₁/₂. |
| energy-mass equivalence | The principle that mass and energy are interchangeable, expressed by the equation E=mc². |
| exponential decay | A mathematical model describing how the number of radioactive nuclei decreases as a function of time, following the equation N = N₀e^(-λt). |
| half-life | The time it takes for half of the initial number of radioactive nuclei in a sample to spontaneously decay. |
| law of conservation of nucleon number | A principle stating that the total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) remains constant in nuclear reactions. |
| neutron | A neutrally charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. |
| nuclear fission | The process by which the nucleus of an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei, often releasing energy. |
| nuclear fusion | The process by which two or more smaller nuclei combine to form a larger nucleus, often releasing energy. |
| nucleons | The subatomic particles that make up the nucleus, consisting of protons and neutrons. |
| proton | A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom. |
| radioactive decay | The spontaneous transformation of a nucleus into one or more different nuclei, characterized by an exponential decrease in the number of radioactive nuclei over time. |
| radioactive nuclei | Unstable nuclei that spontaneously transform into different nuclei through radioactive decay. |
| strong force | The fundamental force that acts between nucleons at nuclear scales and is responsible for holding the nucleus together. |
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alpha decay | A radioactive decay process in which a nucleus ejects an alpha particle. |
| alpha particle | A subatomic particle consisting of two neutrons and two protons, emitted during alpha decay; also called a helium nucleus. |
| antineutrino | The antimatter counterpart of a neutrino, with no electrical charge and negligible mass. |
| beta-minus decay | A radioactive decay process in which a neutron converts to a proton by emitting an electron and an antineutrino. |
| beta-plus decay | A radioactive decay process in which a proton converts to a neutron by emitting a positron and a neutrino. |
| gamma decay | A radioactive decay process in which an excited nucleus emits a photon to reach a lower energy state, typically following alpha or beta decay. |
| lepton number | The number of electrons and neutrinos in a system; conserved in all nuclear decay processes. |
| neutrino | A subatomic particle with no electrical charge and negligible mass that interacts with matter only through the weak force and gravity. |
| nucleon number | The total number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus; conserved in all nuclear decay processes. |
| positron | A subatomic particle with the same mass as an electron but with opposite electric charge; also called an antielectron. |
| radioactive decay | The spontaneous transformation of a nucleus into one or more different nuclei, characterized by an exponential decrease in the number of radioactive nuclei over time. |
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