3.2 Classical Indian Philosophy
3 min read•june 24, 2024
Indian philosophy explores profound concepts like , , and . These ideas shape understanding of reality, self, and existence. The interplay between dualism and in various schools of thought adds depth to Indian philosophical traditions.
Major schools like , , and offer diverse perspectives on life's big questions. While sharing some similarities with Western philosophy, Indian thought uniquely emphasizes spiritual liberation and the cyclical nature of existence.
Core Concepts in Classical Indian Philosophy
Core metaphysical concepts in Indian philosophy
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- Atman refers to the individual self or soul that is believed to be eternal, unchanging, and often considered identical with Brahman (the universal soul)
- Brahman represents the ultimate reality and source of all existence, described as eternal, infinite, and the essence of everything
- Karma is the law of cause and effect, stating that actions in the present life determine future lives and experiences, with good karma leading to liberation () from the cycle of rebirth ()
- Samsara is the continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth driven by an individual's karma and actions, with the ultimate goal being liberation from this cycle in many Indian philosophical traditions (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism)
- refers to the illusory nature of the phenomenal world, which veils the true reality of Brahman
Dualism and Non-dualism in Indian Philosophy
- and : In Samkhya philosophy, these represent the two fundamental principles of existence
- Purusha is the pure consciousness or self
- Prakriti is the primordial matter or nature from which the material world evolves
- The concept of encompasses moral, social, and cosmic order, guiding individual conduct and societal harmony
Major Schools of Indian Thought
Schools of Indian thought
- Vedanta is based on the (later portion of the ) and emphasizes the unity of Atman and Brahman, with main sub-schools being (non-dualism), (qualified non-dualism), and (dualism)
- Buddhism, founded by (the Buddha) in the 5th century BCE, rejects the authority of the Vedas and the concept of an eternal soul, focusing on the and the to overcome suffering
- (suffering or unsatisfactoriness) is a central concept in Buddhist philosophy, recognizing the inherent dissatisfaction in cyclic existence
- is the ultimate goal in Buddhism, representing the cessation of suffering and the end of the cycle of rebirth
- Jainism, founded by in the 6th century BCE, emphasizes (), asceticism, and the attainment of liberation through right knowledge, faith, and conduct, accepting karma but rejecting Vedic authority
Comparison with Western Philosophical Traditions
Indian vs Western philosophical traditions
- Similarities include addressing fundamental questions about reality, knowledge, and ethics, having diverse schools of thought, and influencing religious and spiritual traditions
- Differences involve Indian philosophy's emphasis on spiritual and soteriological aspects compared to Western philosophy's focus on rational inquiry and logical argumentation
- Indian philosophy generally accepts rebirth and cyclical time, while Western philosophy often views time as linear and life as a single existence
- Indian philosophy emphasizes the unity of the individual self with the ultimate reality, whereas Western philosophy maintains a clearer distinction between the self and the external world
Key Terms to Review (26)
Advaita: Advaita is a non-dual philosophical tradition within Hinduism that emphasizes the oneness of the individual self (Atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). It is considered one of the most influential schools of classical Indian philosophy.
Ahimsa: Ahimsa is a fundamental principle in Indian philosophy, particularly in Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism, that advocates for non-violence, non-injury, and respect for all forms of life. It is a core ethical value that emphasizes the importance of compassion and the avoidance of harm in one's thoughts, words, and actions.
Atman: Atman is the concept in Hinduism and other Indian philosophical traditions that refers to the individual's true self, soul, or essence. It is considered the eternal, unchanging spiritual core of a person that is ultimately connected to the universal divine consciousness known as Brahman.
Brahman: Brahman is the ultimate, supreme, and absolute reality in Hinduism. It is the underlying, unifying substance that is the source and basis of all existence, encompassing all aspects of the universe and the divine essence present in all things.
Buddhism: Buddhism is a spiritual tradition that originated in ancient India and is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha. It is a belief system that emphasizes the attainment of enlightenment and the cessation of suffering through the practice of meditation, ethical conduct, and the development of wisdom and compassion.
Dharma: Dharma is a fundamental concept in Indian philosophy, referring to the principle of cosmic and individual order, duty, and righteousness. It encompasses the moral and ethical code that guides an individual's actions and their role within the broader social and spiritual framework.
Dukkha: Dukkha is a central concept in Buddhist philosophy, referring to the inherent unsatisfactoriness and suffering that is a part of the human condition. It encompasses the idea that all existence is marked by a fundamental lack of fulfillment and the presence of pain, stress, and dissatisfaction.
Dvaita: Dvaita, also known as Dvaitavada, is a school of Hindu philosophy that advocates for the fundamental duality between the individual self (Jiva) and the divine absolute (Brahman). It was propounded by the philosopher Madhvacharya in the 13th century CE and is one of the major philosophical traditions within the broader framework of Classical Indian Philosophy.
Eightfold Path: The Eightfold Path is a central concept in Buddhist teachings, outlining a set of eight interconnected practices that lead to the cessation of suffering and the attainment of enlightenment. This term is particularly relevant in the context of Classical Indian Philosophy and Daoism, as both traditions share some philosophical similarities with Buddhism.
Four Noble Truths: The Four Noble Truths are a fundamental teaching in Buddhism that outline the nature of human suffering and the path to its cessation. These truths form the foundation of Buddhist philosophy and guide the path to enlightenment.
Jainism: Jainism is an ancient Indian religion that emphasizes the principle of non-violence (ahimsa) towards all living beings. It is one of the oldest Indian philosophies, with roots tracing back to the 6th century BCE, and is known for its ascetic practices and emphasis on spiritual purification through the renunciation of worldly attachments.
Karma: Karma is a fundamental concept in Indian philosophy, referring to the principle of cause and effect where one's actions, thoughts, and intentions determine their future circumstances and experiences. It is the universal law of moral causation that governs the cycle of rebirth and reincarnation.
Mahavira: Mahavira, also known as Vardhamana, was a key figure in the development of Jainism, one of the major Indian philosophical and religious traditions. He is revered as the last of the twenty-four Tirthankaras, or spiritual teachers, who have attained enlightenment and taught the Jain path to liberation.
Maya: Maya is a fundamental concept in classical Indian philosophy, referring to the illusion or the apparent reality of the world. It represents the idea that the physical world we perceive is not the ultimate reality, but rather a veil of deception that obscures the true, divine nature of existence.
Moksha: Moksha is a key concept in Indian philosophy, referring to the ultimate liberation or freedom from the cycle of rebirth and suffering. It represents the highest spiritual goal and the attainment of enlightenment or self-realization.
Nirvana: Nirvana is a key concept in Indian philosophy, particularly in the Buddhist tradition, that refers to a state of being free from suffering, desire, and the cycle of rebirth. It represents the ultimate goal and liberation from the human condition.
Non-dualism: Non-dualism, also known as advaita, is a philosophical concept in Classical Indian Philosophy that rejects the idea of a fundamental duality or division between the self (atman) and the ultimate reality (Brahman). It posits that there is a single, unitary essence underlying the apparent diversity of the physical and mental world.
Non-Violence: Non-violence, also known as ahimsa, is a core principle in Classical Indian Philosophy that emphasizes the avoidance of harm and the preservation of life. It is a fundamental ethical and spiritual concept that guides individuals and societies towards peaceful coexistence and conflict resolution without the use of force or violence.
Prakriti: Prakriti is the fundamental, primordial substance or material cause from which the entire universe, including all living beings, is said to have originated according to classical Indian philosophy. It is the primal matter or nature that forms the basis of all existence.
Purusha: Purusha is a key concept in classical Indian philosophy, particularly in the Samkhya and Yoga schools of thought. It represents the eternal, conscious, and transcendent self or soul that is distinct from the physical body and the material world.
Samsara: Samsara is the concept in Indian philosophy that refers to the cycle of rebirth and reincarnation that all living beings are believed to be trapped in, continuing to be reborn into new lives indefinitely. It is a central tenet of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and other Indian religious and philosophical traditions.
Siddhartha Gautama: Siddhartha Gautama, also known as the Buddha, was the founder of Buddhism, one of the world's major religions. He was a spiritual teacher who lived in ancient India and attained enlightenment, or nirvana, through his teachings and practices.
Upanishads: The Upanishads are a collection of ancient Hindu scriptures that contain philosophical teachings and discussions on the nature of reality, the self, and the divine. They are considered the most important and influential texts within the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy.
Vedanta: Vedanta is a Hindu philosophical tradition that focuses on the nature of reality, the self, and the relationship between the two. It is considered one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy and has had a profound influence on Indian thought and culture.
Vedas: The Vedas are the foundational sacred texts of Hinduism, considered to be the oldest and most authoritative scriptures. They encompass a vast body of knowledge, including hymns, prayers, rituals, and philosophical teachings, that have shaped the spiritual and cultural traditions of India for millennia.
Vishistadvaita: Vishistadvaita, or qualified non-dualism, is a prominent Hindu philosophical tradition that emerged in the 11th century CE. It is a form of Vedanta philosophy that emphasizes the oneness of the individual self (Atman) with the supreme divine being (Brahman), while also recognizing the distinct qualities and attributes of Brahman.