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12.1 Enlightenment Social Theory

3 min readLast Updated on June 24, 2024

The Enlightenment sparked a revolution in social thought, challenging traditional authority and promoting reason and individual rights. These ideas fueled major political upheavals and social movements, reshaping the foundations of society and government.

Key concepts like social contract theory and natural rights emerged, along with positivism's emphasis on empirical evidence. This laid the groundwork for modern sociology, which sought to apply scientific methods to understand and address pressing social issues.

Enlightenment Social Theory

Impact of Enlightenment on reform

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  • Enlightenment thinkers promoted reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority
  • Ideas of progress and perfectibility of society gained prominence during the Enlightenment
    • Belief in power of reason to improve human condition and advance society forward
    • Emphasis on education as means to social reform and progress (public schooling, literacy)
  • Enlightenment ideas influenced major political revolutions and social movements

Key Enlightenment concepts

  • Social contract theory: idea that legitimate political authority stems from consent of the governed
  • Natural rights: belief in inherent, inalienable rights of individuals that should be protected by government
  • Separation of powers: division of government into distinct branches to prevent abuse of power
  • Rationalism: emphasis on reason as primary source of knowledge and basis for social organization
  • Secularism: principle of separating religious institutions from state affairs and promoting religious neutrality

Principles of positivist thought

  • Positivism emphasizes importance of empirical evidence and scientific method in understanding society
    • Rejects metaphysical and theological explanations of social phenomena as unverifiable
    • Focuses on observable facts and causal relationships that can be studied and measured (crime rates, birth rates)
  • Auguste Comte (1798-1857) is considered founder of positivism and originated the term "sociology"
    • Proposed "law of three stages" in development of human thought: theological, metaphysical, and positive (scientific)
    • Argued sociology should be based on scientific principles and methods like natural sciences (biology, physics)
  • Positivist approach aims to discover universal laws governing human behavior and society
    • Seeks to identify patterns and regularities in social phenomena that hold true across cultures
    • Emphasizes use of quantitative methods, such as surveys and statistical analysis to study social issues (census data, opinion polls)

Development of empirical sociology

  • Empirical sociology emerged as response to social problems of Enlightenment era and Industrial Revolution
    • Rapid urbanization, industrialization, and population growth led to new social challenges (poverty, disease, crime)
    • Traditional explanations based on religion and tradition were seen as inadequate to address these issues
  • Early sociologists sought to apply scientific methods to study of society and social relations
  • Empirical sociology aimed to identify causes of social problems and propose evidence-based solutions
    • Studied issues such as poverty, crime, and social inequality using data gathered from real-world observations
    • Used methods such as surveys, interviews, and participant observation to gather data (door-to-door surveys, living in communities)
  • Development of empirical sociology laid foundation for modern social sciences and evidence-based policymaking
    • Influenced growth of academic disciplines such as anthropology, political science, and economics in universities
    • Contributed to development of social policies and reforms in 19th and 20th centuries (welfare state, civil rights legislation)

Key Terms to Review (30)

American Revolution: The American Revolution was a pivotal event in world history that transformed a collection of British colonies into an independent nation, the United States of America. It was a political upheaval that established a new system of government based on the principles of Enlightenment social theory, such as individual liberty, representative democracy, and the rights of man.
Auguste Comte: Auguste Comte was a French philosopher and the founder of the philosophical movement known as positivism. Comte's ideas had a significant influence on the development of social theory and the understanding of society during the Enlightenment period.
Bureaucracy: Bureaucracy refers to a hierarchical system of administration and organization, typically found in large-scale government or corporate structures, that is characterized by clearly defined rules, procedures, and divisions of responsibility. It is a systematic approach to managing complex organizations and ensuring efficiency and consistency in decision-making and task execution.
Capitalism: Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. It is characterized by the accumulation of capital, competitive markets, and wage labor.
Collective Consciousness: Collective consciousness refers to the shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes that operate as a unifying force within a society. It represents the common understanding and sense of identity that emerges from people living and interacting together within a social group or community.
Divine Right of Kings: The divine right of kings is the belief that monarchs derive their authority from God and are accountable only to Him. This principle asserts that kings and queens have a God-given right to rule, and their subjects have a moral and religious obligation to obey them.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a prominent American social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure of the early women's rights movement in the 19th century. She played a pivotal role in advancing the cause of women's suffrage and advocating for broader social and political reforms during the Enlightenment era.
Émile Durkheim: Émile Durkheim was a prominent French sociologist who is considered a founding father of modern sociology. He made significant contributions to the understanding of social structures, collective consciousness, and the role of social institutions in shaping individual and societal behavior.
Empirical Sociology: Empirical sociology is the branch of sociology that focuses on the systematic observation and analysis of social phenomena using scientific methods and empirical data. It emphasizes the collection and examination of evidence-based information to understand and explain social patterns, behaviors, and interactions.
Empiricism: Empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It emphasizes the role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or traditions. Empiricism is a central tenet of the scientific method and is closely related to the philosophical concepts explored in this course.
Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century. It emphasized the use of reason, individualism, and the scientific method to challenge traditional modes of authority and knowledge.
Frederick Douglass: Frederick Douglass was an African American social reformer, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. He was born into slavery but escaped and became a prominent figure in the abolitionist movement, fighting for the emancipation of enslaved people and the advancement of civil rights.
French Revolution: The French Revolution was a major political and social upheaval in France that had far-reaching consequences for the country and the rest of Europe. It began in 1789 and ended with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1799, marking a significant shift in the political and social landscape of France and the world.
Individualism: Individualism is a social theory that emphasizes the intrinsic worth and autonomy of the individual, prioritizing individual goals, rights, and freedoms over those of the collective or society. It is a fundamental philosophical and political concept that has shaped modern Western thought and society.
Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid technological, economic, and social change that transformed the way goods were produced and transformed societies across Europe and North America in the 18th and 19th centuries. It marked a shift from manual labor and cottage industries to machine-based manufacturing and mass production.
John Locke: John Locke was an influential 17th century English philosopher who made significant contributions to political theory, epistemology, and social theory. His ideas had a profound impact on the Enlightenment and continue to shape modern political and philosophical thought.
Law of Three Stages: The law of three stages is a sociological theory proposed by Auguste Comte, which suggests that the development of human knowledge and society progresses through three distinct stages: the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive or scientific stage.
Max Weber: Max Weber was a prominent German sociologist, philosopher, and political economist who is considered one of the founders of modern sociology. He is known for his influential work on the role of religion and culture in shaping social and economic systems, as well as his analysis of the rise of capitalism and bureaucracy.
Natural Rights: Natural rights are inalienable rights inherent to all human beings, not granted by any government or authority, but rather existing as a part of the natural order. These rights are considered fundamental to human existence and flourishing, and are often the basis for philosophical and political arguments about the legitimate role and limits of government power.
Perfectibility: Perfectibility refers to the belief that human beings and society have the capacity to continuously improve and reach a state of perfection or near-perfection. This concept is closely associated with Enlightenment social theory, which emphasized the potential for human progress and the ability to create a better, more just, and more rational social order.
Positivism: Positivism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the use of scientific methods and empirical evidence to understand the world. It rejects metaphysical, theological, and ideological explanations in favor of observable facts and data-driven analysis.
Quantitative Methods: Quantitative methods refer to the use of numerical data and statistical analysis to study social phenomena. These methods focus on measuring and quantifying aspects of the social world in order to understand patterns, relationships, and trends.
Rationalism: Rationalism is a philosophical approach that emphasizes the use of reason and logic as the primary means of acquiring knowledge, rather than relying solely on empirical evidence or sensory experience. Rationalists believe that true knowledge can be derived through deductive reasoning and the application of rational principles.
Secularism: Secularism is the principle of separation of the state from religious institutions and the practice of conducting social affairs without the influence of religion. It involves the exclusion of religious considerations from civil affairs and public education.
Separation of Powers: Separation of powers is a fundamental principle of governance that divides the functions of government into distinct branches, each with its own responsibilities and powers. This concept aims to prevent the concentration of authority and promote a system of checks and balances.
Skepticism: Skepticism is a philosophical stance that involves doubting or questioning the validity of certain claims, beliefs, or knowledge. It is a critical approach to understanding the world and our place in it, often challenging commonly held assumptions and seeking evidence-based justifications for what we believe to be true.
Social Contract Theory: Social contract theory is a philosophical concept that explains the origin of society and the legitimacy of the authority of the state over the individual. It proposes that individuals have consented, either explicitly or tacitly, to surrender some of their freedoms and submit to the authority of the government or ruler in exchange for the benefits of organized society.
Social Facts: Social facts are the patterns, structures, and institutions that shape and constrain the behavior of individuals within a society. They are the objective realities of social life that exist independently of individual consciousness or will.
Sociology: Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social behavior. It examines how groups, social institutions, and individuals affect each other and the complex relationships between various aspects of society.
Voltaire: Voltaire was a prominent French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher known for his advocacy of civil liberties, freedom of religion, and free trade. He played a pivotal role in shaping the social and political landscape during the Enlightenment era.
American Revolution
See definition

The American Revolution was a pivotal event in world history that transformed a collection of British colonies into an independent nation, the United States of America. It was a political upheaval that established a new system of government based on the principles of Enlightenment social theory, such as individual liberty, representative democracy, and the rights of man.

Term 1 of 30

Key Terms to Review (30)

American Revolution
See definition

The American Revolution was a pivotal event in world history that transformed a collection of British colonies into an independent nation, the United States of America. It was a political upheaval that established a new system of government based on the principles of Enlightenment social theory, such as individual liberty, representative democracy, and the rights of man.

Term 1 of 30

American Revolution
See definition

The American Revolution was a pivotal event in world history that transformed a collection of British colonies into an independent nation, the United States of America. It was a political upheaval that established a new system of government based on the principles of Enlightenment social theory, such as individual liberty, representative democracy, and the rights of man.

Term 1 of 30



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AP® and SAT® are trademarks registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse this website.
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