9.1 Requirements of a Normative Moral Theory

Normative ethics is the study of moral standards and principles that guide human behavior and determine what actions are right or wrong, good or bad. It focuses on prescriptive, rather than descriptive, questions about morality and how individuals and societies ought to act.

Metaethics: Metaethics is the study of the fundamental nature and meaning of ethical claims, investigating questions about the metaphysical, epistemological, and semantic status of moral judgments.

Moral Theory: A moral theory is a systematic framework of principles, rules, and guidelines that provides a basis for making moral judgments and evaluating the rightness or wrongness of actions.

Moral Relativism: Moral relativism is the view that moral judgments are relative to the individual, culture, or historical context, rather than being absolute or universal.

Consistency refers to the quality of being logically and internally coherent, without contradictions or discrepancies. In the context of normative moral theories, consistency is a key requirement that ensures the principles and guidelines of the theory are applied uniformly and without contradiction.

Universalizability: The principle that moral judgments and principles must be applicable to all similar cases, without exception or double standards.

Impartiality: The ability to make moral judgments without bias or favoritism, treating all individuals and situations equally.

Rationality: The quality of being based on sound reasoning and logical principles, rather than emotion or personal preference.

Determinacy refers to the property of a normative moral theory to provide clear, unambiguous, and definitive guidance on what actions are morally required, permitted, or prohibited. It is a crucial requirement for a successful normative moral theory, as it ensures that individuals can reliably determine the moral status of their actions and make informed ethical decisions.

Normative Ethics: The branch of ethics concerned with the norms or standards for moral behavior, investigating what actions are right or wrong, and what people ought or ought not to do.

Moral Absolutism: The view that there are universal, absolute moral rules that must be followed regardless of the consequences, such as 'do not lie' or 'do not steal.'

Moral Particularism: The view that the moral status of an action depends on the specific details of the situation, rather than on the application of universal moral principles.

Applicability refers to the extent to which a concept, theory, or principle can be applied or used in a given context. It is a crucial consideration in the evaluation of normative moral theories, as it determines the practical relevance and usefulness of such theories in real-world situations.

Normative Ethics: A branch of ethics concerned with the norms or standards for evaluating the rightness and wrongness of actions and the moral value of character traits.

Moral Theory: A systematic set of principles or guidelines that aim to provide a framework for moral decision-making and evaluating the morality of actions.

Practical Relevance: The degree to which a concept or theory can be effectively applied and utilized in real-world situations and decision-making processes.

Consequentialism is a normative ethical theory that judges the morality of an action based on the action's consequences. It is the view that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for judgments about the morality of that conduct.

Utilitarianism: A form of consequentialism that holds that the consequences of one's actions are the ultimate basis for judgments about the morality of those actions, and that the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or well-being.

Deontology: An opposing moral theory that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to a rule or rules, rather than the action's consequences.

Virtue Ethics: A moral theory that emphasizes the virtues or moral character of the individual, rather than the consequences of actions or the rules governing those actions.

Virtue ethics is a normative ethical theory that emphasizes the virtues or moral character, rather than duties or rules (deontology) or the consequences of actions (consequentialism). It focuses on the kind of person one should be, rather than the rightness or wrongness of individual actions.

Eudaimonia: A central concept in virtue ethics, referring to the highest human good or well-being, which is achieved through the cultivation of virtues.

Practical Wisdom: The ability to deliberate well about what is good and beneficial for oneself and for others, a key virtue in virtue ethics.

Moral Exemplars: Individuals who embody the virtues and serve as models for moral behavior, an important aspect of virtue ethics.

Normative moral theories provide guidance on how individuals ought to act and what actions are morally right or wrong. They establish principles and frameworks for evaluating the morality of human conduct and decision-making in the context of 9.1 Requirements of a Normative Moral Theory.

Deontology: A moral theory that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to a rule or rules, rather than the action's consequences.

Consequentialism: A moral theory that judges the morality of an action based on the action's outcome or consequences.

Virtue Ethics: A moral theory that focuses on the virtues or moral character, rather than on the rightness or wrongness of individual actions or their consequences.

Justifiability is a fundamental requirement for a normative moral theory, referring to the ability to provide rational and compelling reasons to support the moral principles and judgments proposed by the theory. It is the quality of being able to be justified or shown to be just, right, or reasonable.

Normativity: Normativity refers to the quality of being normative, or establishing what ought to be the case, as opposed to merely describing what is the case.

Moral Reasoning: Moral reasoning is the process of using logic and evidence to determine the rightness or wrongness of an action or belief, typically in the context of a moral framework or ethical system.

Moral Principles: Moral principles are fundamental rules or guidelines that govern moral behavior and serve as the foundation for ethical decision-making.

Impartiality refers to the quality of being unbiased, fair, and objective in one's judgments, decisions, or actions, without being influenced by personal preferences, emotions, or external pressures. It is a crucial requirement for a normative moral theory and a key principle in consequentialist approaches to ethics.

Objectivity: The state or quality of being objective, uninfluenced by personal feelings, interpretations, or prejudices.

Neutrality: The state of being unbiased, detached, or impartial, without favoring one side or position over another.

Fairness: The quality of treating people equally, without discrimination or favoritism, and in accordance with established rules or principles.

Metaethics is the branch of ethics that investigates the fundamental questions about the nature of moral judgments, values, and properties. It examines the meaning, metaphysics, and epistemology of moral statements, rather than focusing on the specific content of moral norms or obligations.

Moral Realism: The view that moral facts and properties exist independently of what any individual or culture believes, similar to how scientific facts exist independently of beliefs.

Moral Relativism: The view that moral truths are relative to the individual, culture, or historical context, rather than being universal or objective.

Moral Skepticism: The view that we cannot have genuine knowledge of moral facts or properties, and that moral judgments are ultimately unfounded.

Applied ethics is the branch of ethics that deals with the practical application of moral considerations to real-world situations and decision-making. It involves using ethical principles and frameworks to analyze and guide choices and actions in specific contexts.

Normative Ethics: Normative ethics is concerned with establishing moral standards, principles, and guidelines that determine what is right or wrong, good or bad.

Descriptive Ethics: Descriptive ethics is the study of people's beliefs about morality, focusing on how individuals or cultures actually behave, rather than how they ought to behave.

Metaethics: Metaethics investigates the nature, origin, and meaning of moral statements and judgments, exploring questions about the metaphysics, epistemology, and semantics of ethics.

Bioethics is the study of the ethical issues arising from the life sciences, particularly in the fields of medicine, biology, and biotechnology. It examines the moral and philosophical implications of advances in these areas and helps guide decision-making about the appropriate use of such technologies.

Moral Philosophy: The branch of philosophy that examines questions of morality, including how to live a good life, what actions are right or wrong, and what moral obligations we have.

Normative Ethics: The study of what actions are morally right or wrong, and the principles, rules, or duties that govern moral behavior.

Autonomy: The right of individuals to make their own decisions about their own lives and bodies, free from coercion or undue influence.

Environmental ethics is a branch of philosophy that examines the moral relationship between humans and the natural environment. It explores the ethical obligations and responsibilities we have towards the non-human world, including animals, plants, and ecosystems, in the context of contemporary philosophical discussions.

Anthropocentrism: The view that human beings are the central or most significant entities in the world, and that all other things (including the environment) are to be evaluated in terms of their relation to human beings.

Ecocentrism: The belief that the natural world has intrinsic value and that the environment as a whole should be the focus of moral concern, not just individual organisms or human interests.

Sustainability: The principle of meeting present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, often in the context of environmental protection and resource management.

Business ethics refers to the moral principles and values that guide the conduct of businesses and individuals within those organizations. It encompasses the ethical considerations that arise in the context of commercial activities and the decisions made by companies and their employees.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): The commitment of businesses to operate in an economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable manner, considering the interests of various stakeholders beyond just shareholders.

Stakeholder Theory: The view that businesses have a responsibility to consider the needs and interests of all parties affected by their operations, not just shareholders.

Ethical Dilemmas: Situations where there is no clear-cut right or wrong answer, and businesses must weigh competing ethical considerations to make a decision.

Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that holds the view that the morally right course of action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people. It focuses on the consequences of our actions rather than the intentions or the inherent nature of the actions themselves.

Consequentialism: The ethical theory that the consequences of one's actions are the ultimate basis for judgments about the morality of those actions.

Hedonism: The view that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and that all other goods derive their value from their ability to produce pleasure.

Eudaimonia: The ancient Greek concept of the highest human good, often translated as 'flourishing' or 'well-being.'

Ethical egoism is the moral theory that holds that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. It is the view that individuals have a moral obligation to pursue their own well-being above all else, even if it comes at the expense of others.

Enlightened Self-Interest: The idea that by pursuing one's own interests, an individual can also benefit others and society as a whole, creating a win-win situation.

Altruism: The principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others, often at the expense of one's own well-being.

Moral Relativism: The view that moral judgments are relative to the individual or culture, rather than being absolute or universal.

Deontological ethics is a normative ethical theory that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to a rule or rules. It is commonly contrasted with consequentialist theories, which judge the morality of an action based on its consequences.

Duty-based Ethics: An ethical framework that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to a rule or rules, rather than the action's consequences.

Categorical Imperative: A fundamental principle in Kantian deontological ethics that states an action is only moral if it could become a universal law of nature.

Moral Absolutism: The view that there are absolute moral rules that must be followed regardless of the consequences, a key tenet of deontological ethics.

Kantian ethics is a deontological moral philosophy developed by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant. It is based on the idea that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on the action's adherence to a rule or rules, rather than on the consequences of the action. The core of Kantian ethics is the Categorical Imperative, which states that one should 'act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.'

Deontology: The ethical theory that the morality of an action depends on the action's adherence to a rule or rules, rather than on the consequences of the action.

Categorical Imperative: Kant's central principle of ethics, which states that one should act only in accordance with that maxim through which you can at the same time will that it become a universal law.

Duty: In Kantian ethics, the moral obligation to act in accordance with the Categorical Imperative, regardless of one's desires or the consequences of the action.

Divine command theory is the metaethical view that moral rightness stems solely from the commands or nature of God or a divine being. It holds that what is moral is determined by what God commands, and that we have a duty to obey these divine commands.

Metaethics: Metaethics is the study of the nature of moral judgments, moral statements, and moral properties, as well as the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts.

Deontology: Deontology is an ethical theory that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to a rule or rules, rather than the consequences of the action.

Normative Ethics: Normative ethics is the study of ethical action, and is concerned with the criteria for what is considered morally right or wrong, good or bad.

Aristotelian ethics is a philosophical framework developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, which focuses on the pursuit of eudaimonia, or human flourishing, as the ultimate goal of moral action. It emphasizes the importance of developing virtuous character traits, such as courage, temperance, and justice, through habit and practical wisdom.

Eudaimonia: The ancient Greek concept of the highest human good, often translated as 'well-being', 'happiness', or 'flourishing.'

Virtue Ethics: An approach to ethics that emphasizes the virtues or moral character, rather than duties or rules (deontology) or the consequences of actions (consequentialism).

Practical Wisdom (Phronesis): The ability to deliberate well about what is good and beneficial for oneself and for others, and to act accordingly.

Eudaimonia is a central concept in ancient Greek philosophy, particularly in the works of Aristotle. It refers to the highest human good, a state of well-being and flourishing that is the ultimate aim of human existence and ethical behavior.

Virtue Ethics: A normative ethical theory that emphasizes the virtues or moral character, as opposed to duties or rules (deontology) or the consequences of actions (consequentialism).

Eudemian Ethics: One of Aristotle's major ethical treatises, which explores the concept of eudaimonia and its relationship to virtue and the good life.

Happiness: A state of positive emotion and overall life satisfaction, often associated with eudaimonia but not necessarily synonymous with it.

Confucian ethics is a philosophical system developed by the ancient Chinese thinker Confucius, which emphasizes the importance of moral cultivation, social harmony, and the fulfillment of one's role and responsibilities within a hierarchical society. This ethical framework is central to understanding the requirements of a normative moral theory and the principles of virtue ethics.

Ren: The Confucian concept of benevolence, humaneness, and care for others, which is considered the highest virtue and the foundation of all other virtues.

Li: The Confucian concept of propriety, rituals, and social norms that govern appropriate behavior and maintain social order.

Filial Piety: The Confucian value of respect, obedience, and care for one's parents and elders, which is considered the foundation of all other social relationships and virtues.

Moral absolutism is the ethical view that there are absolute standards against which moral questions can be judged, and that certain actions are right or wrong regardless of the circumstances or their consequences. It holds that there are universal moral principles that apply in all situations.

Moral Relativism: The view that moral truths are not absolute, but rather depend on the individual, culture, or situation.

Deontology: An ethical framework that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to a rule or rules, rather than the consequences of the action.

Utilitarianism: A consequentialist ethical framework that judges the morality of an action based on its outcomes, specifically its contribution to overall human (or sentient) well-being or happiness.

Moral relativism is the view that moral judgments are relative to the individual, culture, or historical context in which they are made, rather than being absolute or universal truths. It holds that there are no objective moral standards that apply to all people, at all times, and in all places.

Moral Absolutism: The belief that there are universal, objective moral principles that apply to all people, regardless of individual or cultural differences.

Moral Subjectivism: The view that moral judgments are based on personal opinions, feelings, or preferences, rather than on objective moral facts.

Cultural Relativism: The idea that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by the cultural norms and values of the society in which it occurs.

Moral realism is the view that there are objective moral facts and properties that exist independently of what any individual or culture believes. It holds that moral truths are mind-independent and can be discovered through reason and empirical investigation.

Moral Relativism: The view that moral judgments are relative to the individual or culture, and that there are no universal moral truths.

Moral Subjectivism: The belief that moral judgments are based on individual or cultural preferences and attitudes, rather than objective facts.

Moral Naturalism: The view that moral properties and facts can be reduced to or identified with natural, scientific properties and facts.

Moral pluralism is the philosophical view that there are multiple, irreducible moral values or principles that can come into conflict with one another, rather than a single overarching moral framework. It holds that there is no single, universal moral standard that can resolve all ethical dilemmas.

Moral Monism: The belief that there is a single, universal moral principle or value that can resolve all ethical issues, such as utilitarianism or deontology.

Moral Relativism: The view that moral judgments are relative to the individual, culture, or context, rather than being objective or universal.

Ethical Dilemma: A situation where moral principles or values come into conflict, making it difficult to determine the right course of action.

Prima facie duties are moral obligations that appear to be duties at first glance, but may be overridden by other moral considerations. They are initial or presumptive duties that can be outweighed by other moral factors in specific situations.

Deontology: The moral theory that judges the morality of an action based on the action's adherence to a rule or rules, rather than the consequences of the action.

Moral Dilemma: A situation in which moral obligations or duties appear to conflict, making it difficult to determine the right course of action.

Moral Absolutism: The view that there are absolute moral rules that must always be followed, regardless of the consequences.

Moral intuition refers to the immediate, instinctive judgments or feelings we have about the rightness or wrongness of an action or situation, without conscious reasoning or deliberation. It is a fundamental aspect of how we intuitively perceive and respond to moral dilemmas and ethical questions.

Moral Reasoning: The process of using logic, principles, and evidence to consciously analyze and evaluate the morality of actions or decisions.

Moral Emotions: The feelings, such as empathy, guilt, or disgust, that influence our moral judgments and behaviors.

Moral Heuristics: Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that we use to quickly make moral decisions, often based on past experiences or cultural norms.