judges actions solely on their outcomes, not intentions. It aims to maximize good consequences and minimize harm. The theory argues that the action producing the best overall results is morally right.
Two main forms are , emphasizing impartial concern for all, and , focused on maximizing overall well-being. weighs expected benefits and harms to determine moral rightness in specific situations or as general rules.
Consequentialism
Core principles of consequentialism
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Judges the morality of an action based solely on its consequences or outcomes
Rightness or wrongness determined by results, not intentions or motives behind the action
Example: Lying to protect someone's feelings is morally right if it leads to better consequences
Argues that the action producing the best overall consequences is the morally right action
Goal is to maximize good consequences (benefits) and minimize bad consequences (harms)
Different versions focus on various conceptions of good consequences (happiness, well-being, pleasure, )
Mohist vs utilitarian consequentialism
Mohist consequentialism, based on teachings of Chinese philosopher , emphasizes impartial concern for all people
Act to promote welfare of all individuals equally, regardless of relationship (family, friends, strangers)
Described as a form of "impartial caring" considering everyone's interests
Utilitarianism, developed by philosophers and , focuses on maximizing overall utility or well-being
Utility often understood as happiness, pleasure, or preference satisfaction
Morally right action produces greatest good for greatest number of people
Both evaluate actions based on outcomes, but differ in emphasis
Both theories rely on impartiality and of consequences across individuals
Application of utilitarian calculus
Decision-making procedure weighing expected benefits and harms of an action to determine moral rightness
Considers intensity, duration, certainty, and extent of positive and negative consequences
Example: Evaluating whether to lie to protect someone's feelings
evaluates morality based on specific consequences in a particular situation
Right action produces greatest overall utility in that specific context
Example: Lying in a specific instance because it leads to better consequences
evaluates morality based on consequences of a general rule
Right action conforms to a rule that, if universally followed, would produce greatest overall utility
Example: Adopting a general rule against lying because it leads to better consequences if everyone follows it
Steps to apply utilitarian calculus to an ethical dilemma:
Identify available courses of action
Consider potential consequences of each action, both positive and negative
Assign values to consequences based on intensity, duration, certainty, and extent
Calculate overall utility of each action by subtracting total negative value from total positive value
Choose action that produces greatest overall utility
Act and rule utilitarianism may yield different conclusions about right course of action in a given situation
Act focuses on specific case, rule focuses on general principle
Example: Act utilitarianism may justify a specific lie, while rule utilitarianism would prohibit lying as a general rule
Alternative consequentialist approaches
: Argues that moral agents should act to maximize their own self-interest
: Recognizes multiple moral obligations that can be overridden by stronger duties based on consequences
: Contrasts with consequentialism by holding that certain actions are always wrong, regardless of consequences
Key Terms to Review (15)
Act Utilitarianism: Act utilitarianism is a moral theory that states the rightness or wrongness of an action should be judged solely by its consequences - specifically, its ability to maximize overall happiness or well-being. It focuses on the outcomes of individual actions rather than on adherence to moral rules or principles.
Aggregation: Aggregation is the process of combining or grouping individual elements, data points, or entities into a collective whole. It involves the summation or consolidation of information to provide a higher-level perspective or summary.
Consequentialism: Consequentialism is a normative ethical theory that judges the morality of an action based on the action's consequences. It is the view that the consequences of one's conduct are the ultimate basis for judgments about the morality of that conduct.
Ethical Egoism: Ethical egoism is the moral theory that holds that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. It is the view that individuals have a moral obligation to pursue their own well-being above all else, even if it comes at the expense of others.
Hedonism: Hedonism is the ethical theory that the pursuit of pleasure and the avoidance of pain are the highest good and the proper aims of human life. It is the view that the fundamental motivation and purpose of human existence is to maximize one's own happiness and well-being.
Impartiality: Impartiality refers to the quality of being unbiased, fair, and objective in one's judgments, decisions, or actions, without being influenced by personal preferences, emotions, or external pressures. It is a crucial requirement for a normative moral theory and a key principle in consequentialist approaches to ethics.
Jeremy Bentham: Jeremy Bentham was an influential English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer who lived in the 18th and 19th centuries. He is best known for his work on utilitarianism, which is a moral and political philosophy that holds that the most ethical choice is the one that maximizes overall happiness or well-being for all those affected.
John Stuart Mill: John Stuart Mill was a prominent 19th century British philosopher, political economist, and civil servant. He is known for his influential works on utilitarianism, political theory, and the philosophy of liberty.
Mohist Consequentialism: Mohist consequentialism is a moral theory that evaluates the rightness or wrongness of an action based solely on its consequences. It emphasizes that the ultimate goal of morality is to maximize the overall benefit or 'collective good' for society, rather than focusing on individual rights or intentions.
Moral Absolutism: Moral absolutism is the ethical view that there are absolute standards against which moral questions can be judged, and that certain actions are right or wrong regardless of the circumstances or their consequences. It holds that there are universal moral principles that apply in all situations.
Mozi: Mozi was a Chinese philosopher who lived during the Warring States period (c. 470-391 BCE). He is known for his ethical philosophy of universal love, which emphasized the importance of impartial care and mutual benefit in human relationships and social interactions. Mozi's ideas on consequentialism and utilitarianism had a significant impact on the development of Chinese philosophy.
Prima Facie Duties: Prima facie duties are moral obligations that appear to be duties at first glance, but may be overridden by other moral considerations. They are initial or presumptive duties that can be outweighed by other moral factors in specific situations.
Rule Utilitarianism: Rule utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism that evaluates the morality of an action based on the consequences of adhering to a rule or set of rules, rather than the consequences of the individual action itself. The focus is on establishing rules that, if universally followed, would lead to the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
Utilitarian Calculus: Utilitarian calculus is a decision-making framework within the broader philosophical theory of utilitarianism. It involves the systematic evaluation of the consequences of an action in order to determine the course of action that will result in the greatest good or happiness for the greatest number of people.
Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that holds the view that the morally right course of action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people. It focuses on the consequences of our actions rather than the intentions or the inherent nature of the actions themselves.