1.7 Comparisons in the Period from 1200-1450

The period from 1200 to 1450 CE saw diverse states developing across the world. While each region created distinctive political systems, comparing these states reveals fascinating patterns of both similarity and difference. This comparative approach helps us understand broader historical processes rather than just memorizing isolated facts about individual states.

Similarities in State Formation

Legitimizing Authority

Across the world, rulers needed to convince people they had the right to rule. Religion proved to be a powerful tool for this purpose.

Religious legitimacy appeared in various forms:

• Chinese emperors claimed the "Mandate of Heaven"
• Islamic rulers positioned themselves as defenders of the faith
• European monarchs were crowned in religious ceremonies
• Mesoamerican leaders performed public religious rituals
• African kings often served as religious intermediaries
• Southeast Asian rulers adopted Hindu or Buddhist cosmic roles

Despite different belief systems, these religious claims served similar functions:

• Connecting earthly rule to cosmic order
• Providing divine sanction for human authority
• Creating ceremonial roles that reinforced power
• Establishing rules for proper succession
• Giving rulers authority beyond mere military might

Beyond religion, states developed other common methods to legitimize rule:

• Creating elaborate court ceremonies
• Building impressive monuments and capitals
• Establishing dynastic lineages connecting to revered ancestors
• Developing origin stories explaining their special status
• Distributing resources to demonstrate generosity and care

Administrative Innovations

As states grew larger, they faced similar challenges in governing effectively. Many developed parallel solutions.

Common administrative developments included:

• Written record-keeping systems
• Hierarchical bureaucracies with specialized roles
• Tax collection mechanisms
• Legal codes and judicial systems
• Communication networks to transmit orders

These innovations appeared in different forms:

• China's civil service examination system
• The Islamic world's sophisticated legal scholars
• Inca's decimal administration and quipu record-keeping
• European royal courts and emerging parliaments
• African states' councils of notables and age-grade systems
• Maya and Mexica tribute collection networks

States also managed territory through similar approaches:

• Provincial governors representing central authority
• Strategic placement of fortifications
• Road networks for moving troops and information
• Integration of conquered elites into governance
• Balancing local autonomy with central control

Economic Foundations

Successful states needed reliable economic resources to fund armies, bureaucrats, and rulers' lifestyles.

Agriculture formed the foundation of most state economies:

• Intensive farming in fertile river valleys (China, Egypt)
• Terraced agriculture in mountainous regions (Andes, Southeast Asia)
• Irrigation systems in arid zones (Southwest Asia, parts of Africa)
• Specialized crop production in suitable climates
• Systems to extract surplus from farmers

Trade also played a crucial role in state development:

• Control of key trade routes brought wealth
• Marketplaces were regulated and taxed
• Luxury goods often became state monopolies
• Standardized weights and currency facilitated commerce
• Merchant classes sometimes gained political influence

Labor was organized in various ways that benefited the state:

• Corvée labor for public works projects
• Military service requirements
• Tax obligations payable in goods or services
• Specialized craft production
• Various forms of unfree labor (slavery, serfdom)

Differences in State Formation

Centralization vs. Fragmentation

One of the most significant differences was the degree of political centralization achieved in different regions.

Highly centralized states included:

• China under the Yuan and Ming dynasties
• The Inca Empire in the Andes
• The Delhi Sultanate in South Asia
• The Mali Empire in West Africa
• The Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt

More fragmented political systems appeared in:

• Europe's feudal kingdoms
• The competing Maya city-states
• Post-Abbasid Middle East with multiple sultanates
• Japan's shogunate system with powerful local daimyo
• The city-states of Italy and the Hausa kingdoms

These differences stemmed from multiple factors:

• Geographic challenges to unified control
• Historical traditions favoring centralization or local power
• Available transportation and communication technology
• Cultural values regarding authority
• External threats requiring unified response

Succession Systems

How leadership transferred from one ruler to another varied dramatically across regions, creating different patterns of stability and conflict.

Hereditary succession dominated in many regions:

• Chinese imperial lineages passing from father to son
• European monarchies following various inheritance rules
• Japanese imperial line claiming unbroken descent
• Southeast Asian kingdoms with dynastic succession
• Inca rulers passing power through royal lineages

Alternative systems included:

• The Mamluk Sultanate's selection from military elites
• The Islamic world's varying approaches to succession
• Some African systems rotating leadership among lineages
• Mongol selection based partly on ability and charisma
• Catholic Church's elective papacy influencing European politics

Each system created different dynamics:

• Hereditary systems provided clarity but sometimes produced incompetent rulers
• Elective systems could select for ability but often generated succession conflicts
• Mixed systems attempted to balance competing considerations
• Some states frequently experienced violent succession struggles
• Others developed peaceful transfer mechanisms

The Role of Cities

Urban centers played vastly different roles in state formation across regions.

In some areas, cities were central to state power:

• Islamic empires centered on great urban capitals
• Italian city-states where the city was the state
• Aztec power emanating from Tenochtitlan
• Chinese administrative centers housing imperial officials
• West African trade cities serving as royal capitals

In other regions, political power remained more rural:

• European feudal authority based in countryside castles
• Japanese daimyo controlling rural domains
• Some nomadic states maintaining mobile capitals
• Agricultural states with less developed urban centers
• Religious centers sometimes separated from political capitals

Cities functioned differently across political systems:

• As ceremonial centers demonstrating state power
• As administrative hubs housing bureaucracies
• As economic centers generating tax revenue
• As defensive strongholds protecting territory
• As cultural centers promoting state ideology

Military Organization

How states organized their fighting forces revealed important differences in their structure and priorities.

Specialized professional forces characterized some states:

• Mamluk slave-soldier system
• Mongol warrior society focused on cavalry
• Ottoman janissary corps
• Chinese standing armies
• Mexica eagle and jaguar warrior orders

Other regions relied on different military structures:

• European feudal levies and knights
• Japanese samurai serving daimyo
• Inca rotational military service
• African age-grade warrior systems
• Mercenary forces in various regions

Military technology also varied significantly:

• Gunpowder weapons appearing in China and spreading westward
• Sophisticated metallurgy for weapons in some regions
• Horse-based warfare dominating the steppes
• Naval power critical for maritime states
• Defensive fortifications reflecting local materials and threats

Regional Patterns in State Formation

East Asia

State formation in East Asia built on long-established traditions:

• Confucian bureaucratic systems
• Merit-based civil service examinations
• Strong centralized authority under emperors
• Detailed written records and histories
• Cultural unity despite periodic political fragmentation

The Mongol conquest brought significant changes:

• New ruling elites with different traditions
• Integration into broader Eurasian networks
• Adoption of some foreign administrative techniques
• Later reaction and restoration of traditional patterns

South and Southeast Asia

The Indian subcontinent featured:

• Multiple competing states rather than unified empire
• Islamic sultanates in the north
• Hindu kingdoms in the south
• Synthesis of Persian, Turkish, and indigenous traditions
• Religious pluralism within political structures

Southeast Asian state formation showed:

• Adaptation of Indian political models
• Island states based on maritime trade
• Mainland states controlling river valleys
• Religious syncretism incorporating multiple traditions
• Gradual Islamic influence in coastal trading centers

Middle East and North Africa

Islamic political development included:

• Fragmentation of the earlier caliphate system
• Rise of military elites, often of slave origin
• Sultanates as the dominant political form
• Religious scholars (ulama) providing legitimacy
• Integration of Persian administrative traditions

Sub-Saharan Africa

African state formation involved diverse approaches:

• Trade-based kingdoms controlling gold and salt routes
• Pastoralist states built on cattle wealth
• Agricultural kingdoms in fertile regions
• Maritime states along the East African coast
• Religious authority (both indigenous and Islamic) supporting kingship

Europe

European development differed from much of the world:

• Extreme political fragmentation
• Feudal relationships creating complex hierarchies
• Tension between secular and religious authority
• Emerging parliamentary institutions
• Powerful urban communes in some regions

The Americas

American state formation occurred without contact with Afro-Eurasia:

• Diverse models from city-states to expansive empires
• Agricultural intensification supporting state growth
• Religious authority central to political legitimacy
• Monumental architecture demonstrating power
• Less developed writing systems (except Maya)

Comparative Analysis of Specific States

Imperial Systems

The most extensive states during this period shared important features:

• The Yuan and Ming dynasties in China controlled vast territories through bureaucratic systems
• The Inca rapidly created the largest American empire through effective administration
• The Delhi Sultanate united much of South Asia under Islamic rule
• The Mali Empire controlled critical trade routes across West Africa
• The Mongol khanates temporarily created the largest land empire in history

Yet these empires differed in critical ways:

• Length of historical tradition (China's millennia vs. Mali's generations)
• Methods of incorporation (Mongol destruction vs. Inca resettlement)
• Religious foundations (secular Confucian vs. Islamic or indigenous)
• Administrative sophistication (China's examination system vs. Inca's quipu)
• Succession stability (Ming hereditary vs. Mali's family selection)

City-State Systems

Some regions developed systems of competing city-states rather than unified empires:

• Maya cities competed and allied in complex patterns
• Italian city-states like Venice and Florence developed distinct political models
• Hausa cities maintained independence while sharing culture
• Hanseatic League cities in Northern Europe created a trade federation
• Greek city-states continued Byzantine traditions

These systems shared:

• Intense competition driving innovation
• Strong local identities
• Complex diplomatic relationships
• Commercial focus
• Cultural achievements despite political division

Nomadic State Formation

Nomadic peoples created distinctive state systems during this period:

• Mongol confederation under Chinggis Khan
• Turkish groups establishing sultanates in the Middle East
• Pastoral African kingdoms with mobile capitals
• Central Asian khanates controlling trade routes
• Berber states in North Africa

These states developed approaches suited to mobile populations:

• Flexible administrative systems
• Military superiority through cavalry mobility
• Adaptation of sedentary administrative practices
• Revenue through taxation of trade routes
• Cultural synthesis between nomadic and agricultural traditions

Factors Influencing State Formation

Geographic Determinants

The physical environment shaped political possibilities:

• Mountain ranges often marked political boundaries
• River valleys facilitated unified control
• Deserts limited state expansion
• Maritime access enabled trading states
• Climate affected agricultural surplus and population density

Compare these examples:

• China's relatively unified geography supported a unified state
• Europe's peninsulas and mountains encouraged fragmentation
• The Andes mountains both challenged and defined Inca expansion
• West African states developed along rivers flowing into the Sahara
• Island Southeast Asia created distinctly maritime political forms

External Pressures

Threats and opportunities from outside often catalyzed state formation:

• The Mongol invasions transformed political systems across Eurasia
• Islamic expansion created new state forms
• Trade opportunities encouraged political organization
• Competition between neighboring states drove centralization
• Defense needs promoted unified command structures

Technological Factors

Available technologies influenced state capabilities:

• Transportation systems (roads, ships, horses) determined effective state size
• Communication methods affected administrative control
• Military technologies shaped conquest patterns
• Agricultural innovations supported population growth
• Record-keeping systems enabled effective governance

Cultural Traditions

Pre-existing cultural patterns provided foundations for state development:

• Religious traditions offered legitimacy models
• Kinship systems structured relationships
• Historical precedents guided new state builders
• Linguistic unity or diversity affected administration
• Shared ethical systems facilitated governance

Interconnections Between States

Despite their differences, states during this period increasingly interacted:

• The Mongol Empire temporarily connected much of Eurasia
• Islamic networks linked states across Africa and Asia
• Trade routes connected politically distinct regions
• Diplomatic missions exchanged ideas and technologies
• Religious traditions crossed political boundaries

These interconnections meant that state formation rarely happened in isolation. Ideas, technologies, and challenges moved across borders, creating parallel developments even in regions without direct contact.

Understanding these patterns of similarity and difference helps us move beyond memorizing facts about individual states to comprehending the broader processes of how human societies organize politically. The period from 1200 to 1450 CE offers a particularly rich comparative perspective because it featured highly developed states across multiple world regions, each responding to similar challenges with both parallel and distinctive approaches.