AP World History: Modern

1.6 Developments in Europe from 1200-1450

Verified for the 2025 AP World History: Modern exam•Last Updated on June 18, 2024

Europe during the 13th to 15th centuries looked very different from the unified Roman Empire of the past or the nation-states of the future. This was a time of castles and cathedrals, lords and peasants, monasteries and universities. While other regions were building large empires, Europe remained divided into hundreds of competing territories with overlapping authorities and complex political relationships.

Religious Beliefs and Their Impact

Christianity's Central Role

Christianity dominated European society during this period, affecting nearly every aspect of life.

The Catholic Church functioned as Europe's most unified institution:

The Pope in Rome claimed authority over all Christians
A hierarchy of archbishops, bishops, and priests extended church influence
Monasteries and convents provided education, charity, and spiritual guidance
Church courts handled many legal matters
Religious calendars determined work patterns and holidays

Christian beliefs shaped daily life for most Europeans:

Regular church attendance was expected
Sacraments marked important life transitions (baptism, marriage, last rites)
Religious festivals punctuated the year
Christian ethics guided personal behavior
Salvation and avoiding eternal punishment motivated actions

The church influenced politics in several ways:

Monarchs claimed divine right to rule
Popes could excommunicate rulers (cutting them off from Christian community)
Church leaders often served as royal advisors
Religious institutions owned vast lands
Crusades united European powers for religious-military campaigns

This period saw important religious developments:

Rise of universities, often started as cathedral schools
New religious orders like Franciscans and Dominicans
Gothic cathedral construction across Europe
Increasing emphasis on personal piety
Religious challenges from movements like the Lollards

When Emperor Henry IV challenged papal authority, Pope Gregory VII excommunicated him. The Emperor ultimately stood barefoot in the snow for three days outside the Pope's residence at Canossa, begging forgiveness. This dramatic scene illustrates the real political power of religious authority in medieval Europe.

Judaism in Medieval Europe

Jewish communities maintained their distinctive religious identity despite increasing persecution.

Jewish life centered around:

Local synagogues for worship and study
Religious education focusing on Torah and Talmud
Dietary laws and Sabbath observance
Community self-governance allowed by Christian rulers
Maintenance of Hebrew as a liturgical language

However, Jews faced growing restrictions:

Confinement to specific neighborhoods (later called ghettos)
Special taxes and economic limitations
Distinctive clothing required by law
Periodic expulsions from various kingdoms
Scapegoating during times of crisis (like the Black Death)

Despite these challenges, Jewish communities made significant contributions:

Scholars preserved and expanded learning
Merchants participated in long-distance trade
Moneylenders provided capital when Christian laws forbade lending at interest
Physicians practiced advanced medical techniques
Translators helped recover ancient Greek texts through Arabic sources

Islam in Europe

Islam maintained a presence in parts of Europe, particularly in Spain (called al-Andalus) and Sicily.

Islamic regions in Europe featured:

Mosques serving as centers for worship and education
Religious courts applying Islamic law
Libraries preserving Greek, Persian, and Arabic knowledge
Distinctive architectural styles
Multilingual communities with religious diversity

However, Christian reconquest gradually reduced Islamic territory:

Much of Spain was recaptured by Christian kingdoms by 1250
Sicily had passed from Muslim to Christian rule earlier
Granada remained as the last Muslim state in Spain until 1492
Muslim populations often remained under Christian rule, though with restrictions
Islamic intellectual influence continued even as political control waned

The Islamic presence influenced European development through:

Transfer of scientific and philosophical knowledge
Introduction of new crops and agricultural techniques
Transmission of mathematical concepts
Architectural influences visible in southern Europe
Trade connections to North Africa and the Middle East

Political Fragmentation and Decentralization

Feudal Relationships and Obligations

Unlike the centralized empires of Asia, Europe developed a decentralized political system based on personal relationships and mutual obligations.

The feudal system connected people through a network of rights and responsibilities:

Kings granted land (fiefs) to nobles in exchange for military service
These nobles became vassals, swearing loyalty to their lord
Vassals could grant portions of their land to lesser nobles
Each level owed specific services and obligations to those above
Complex webs of loyalty often created conflicting obligations

The typical obligations in these relationships included:

Military service for a specified number of days
Attending the lord's court to provide advice
Financial payments at certain times (like when a lord's daughter married)
Hospitality when the lord traveled through the area
Loyalty during conflicts

This system resulted in fragmented authority:

Kings often controlled directly only a small portion of their kingdoms
Powerful nobles could challenge royal authority
Local customs and laws varied tremendously
Multiple layers of jurisdiction created competing claims
Inheritance disputes frequently led to conflicts

Feudal relationships evolved significantly during this period:

Military service was increasingly replaced by money payments
Professional administrators gradually replaced personal rule
Written records became more important than oral agreements
Some monarchs began centralizing power more effectively
Urban areas often operated outside strictly feudal relationships

Monarchy and Governance

European kingdoms during this period were not the centralized nation-states of later centuries.

Medieval monarchs faced significant constraints:

Limited communication and transportation technology
Powerful nobles with their own military forces
Church authority that could challenge royal decisions
Customary laws that restricted arbitrary rule
Lack of permanent bureaucracies or standing armies

Even so, some monarchies began strengthening royal authority:

England developed common law and parliamentary institutions
France gradually expanded royal domain and authority
Spain saw the unification of Castile and Aragon through marriage
Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom
Scotland, Hungary, and Poland consolidated their territories

Important innovations in governance emerged:

Representative assemblies (like England's Parliament)
Royal courts that extended the king's justice
Tax systems that generated regular revenue
Chartered towns with special privileges
Written legal codes and records

Political conflicts shaped institutional development:

The Magna Carta in England limited royal power
The Hundred Years' War between England and France drove administrative changes
Conflicts between popes and emperors weakened both
Urban revolts led to new governing arrangements in cities
Succession disputes refined inheritance laws

The Manorial System

While feudalism organized relationships among the elite, the manorial system structured everyday economic and social life.

The typical manor included:

The lord's manor house or castle
A village of peasant households
Church lands
Fields divided into strips for cultivation
Forests, pastures, and waste areas for common use

The manorial court regulated local affairs:

Enforced labor obligations
Settled disputes between villagers
Punished minor crimes
Recorded land transfers
Regulated agricultural practices

This system provided stability but limited economic development:

Self-sufficiency was prioritized over specialization
Local customs restricted innovation
Surplus production was often consumed rather than traded
Limited mobility kept labor tied to specific locations
Technology changed very slowly

Some changes began appearing in the manorial system:

Increased use of money rather than labor obligations
Growth of markets for agricultural surplus
Specialization in certain regions (like wool production)
Technological improvements like water mills and better plows
Migration to towns and cities, especially after the Black Death

Agricultural Society and Labor Systems

Serfdom and Peasant Life

Most Europeans during this period were peasants working the land, many of them serfs with limited freedom.

Serfs occupied a middle position:

Not slaves (who were property), but not free
Legally bound to the land they worked
Required to provide labor services to their lord
Subject to various fees and obligations
Limited in their movements and life choices

Typical obligations for serfs included:

Working the lord's land for specified days
Paying fees to use the lord's mill, oven, or wine press
Providing a portion of their harvest
Paying for permission to marry
Restrictions on leaving the manor without permission

Daily peasant life involved:

Small, simple housing, often shared with animals
Diet based on grains, vegetables, and dairy
Labor from dawn to dusk following seasonal patterns
Limited education or literacy
Local religious festivals as the main entertainment

The peasant family served as the basic work unit:

Men typically handled plowing and heavy field work
Women managed gardens, dairy production, and textile making
Children contributed labor from an early age
Extended family members often shared households
Work and home life were completely integrated

Free and Urban Labor

Not all labor was unfree. Free peasants, craftspeople, and urban workers existed throughout Europe.

Free peasants could be found in several regions:

Northern Italy had many small landowners
Parts of England saw commutation of labor services to rent
Frontier regions often offered better terms to attract settlers
Some peasants purchased their freedom over time
The Black Death increased peasant bargaining power

Urban labor was organized differently:

Craft guilds regulated production and training
Apprentices learned trades over many years
Journeymen worked for wages
Masters owned workshops and trained others
Merchants organized commercial activities

Guild structure provided:

Quality control for products
Training systems for new workers
Mutual aid for members
Regulation of competition
Political representation in town governance

Women's labor, though often overlooked, was essential:

Agricultural work alongside men
Textile production (spinning, weaving, sewing)
Food processing and preservation
Market selling and small-scale trade
Household management and childcare

Agricultural Innovations and Challenges

European agriculture during this period saw both innovations and significant challenges.

Important agricultural techniques included:

Three-field rotation system increasing productive land
Heavy plows suited to northern European soils
Use of horses with improved harnesses for faster fieldwork
Watermills and windmills for grinding grain and other tasks
Drainage of marshlands in places like the Netherlands

Regional specialization began to develop:

Wine production in some areas
Wool and textile production in others
Dairy farming in suitable regions
Commercial grain production near waterways
Timber and forest products from wooded areas

Major challenges affected agricultural production:

The Little Ice Age brought colder temperatures after 1300
The Black Death (1347-1351) killed 30-50% of the population
Frequent local famines due to weather or warfare
Soil exhaustion in intensively farmed areas
Deforestation causing erosion and fuel shortages

After the Black Death, significant changes occurred:

Labor shortages led to higher wages
Some peasants gained more freedom
Land use shifted from crops to livestock in some areas
Abandoned villages were common in hard-hit regions
Social mobility increased for surviving peasants

Europe in the Wider World

Despite political fragmentation, Europe maintained connections to other regions.

Trade networks linked Europe to:

The Byzantine Empire and Eastern Christianity
The Islamic world across the Mediterranean
The Mongol Empire via the Silk Road
Baltic and North Sea regions
Sub-Saharan Africa indirectly through North Africa

Intellectual exchanges brought:

Greek philosophy through Arabic translations
Mathematical concepts including Arabic numerals
Scientific works on astronomy and medicine
New crops and agricultural techniques
Technological innovations like paper-making

Europe's position was changing during this period:

Crusades brought increased contact with the Middle East
Italian city-states established trading posts in the eastern Mediterranean
Portuguese exploration began moving down the African coast
Universities became centers for synthesizing diverse knowledge
The foundations for later European expansion were being laid

The medieval European experience demonstrates how regions develop distinctive solutions to common human challenges. While lacking the grand unified empires of Asia, Europe's decentralized political structure allowed for diverse experiments in governance, eventually producing innovations that would later impact the entire world.

Key Terms to Review (35)

Battle of Agincourt: The Battle of Agincourt was a significant English victory during the Hundred Years' War, fought on October 25, 1415. This battle showcased the effectiveness of English longbowmen against heavily armored French knights, marking a turning point in the conflict and influencing military tactics in Europe.

Battle of Crécy: The Battle of Crécy was a significant battle fought on August 26, 1346, during the Hundred Years' War between England and France. This battle marked a pivotal moment in military history, showcasing the effectiveness of longbowmen and leading to a decisive English victory that altered the course of the conflict and demonstrated the changing nature of warfare in Europe.

Battle of Tours: The Battle of Tours, fought in 732, was a significant conflict between the Frankish forces led by Charles Martel and the Umayyad Caliphate's army. This battle is often credited with halting the northward expansion of Islam into Western Europe, marking a turning point that had lasting implications for European history, particularly in shaping the political landscape from 1200 to 1450.

Catholic Church: The Catholic Church is the largest Christian church, with more than a billion members worldwide. It has played a crucial role in shaping European culture, politics, and society from the medieval period onward, particularly from 1200 to 1450 when it became a dominant force in Europe through religious authority, political power, and cultural influence.

Charles "The Hammer" Martel: Charles 'The Hammer' Martel was a Frankish leader who played a crucial role in shaping medieval Europe by winning the Battle of Tours in 732. His victory halted the advance of Muslim forces into Western Europe, establishing him as a key figure in defending Christendom and solidifying the power of the Carolingian dynasty. Martel's military strategies and political maneuvers laid the groundwork for the rise of his grandson, Charlemagne, and set the stage for the future of European politics and warfare.

Concordat of Worms: The Concordat of Worms, established in 1122, was an agreement that ended the Investiture Controversy between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire. This significant treaty allowed the church to appoint bishops and abbots while giving the emperor a limited role in their selection. It marked a crucial moment in the relationship between church and state, reflecting the power struggles in Europe during this period.

Crusades: The Crusades were a series of religious and military campaigns that took place between the late 11th and late 13th centuries, initiated by European Christians with the primary goal of reclaiming Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslim rule. These expeditions had significant impacts on European society, economy, and culture, as well as on relations between Christians and Muslims, and played a crucial role in shaping the medieval period in Europe.

England: England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom, known for its significant historical and cultural impact on the world. From the emergence of a unified kingdom in the 9th century through the development of parliamentary democracy and the Industrial Revolution, England played a crucial role in shaping global events and ideas.

English Parliament: The English Parliament is a legislative body in the United Kingdom, historically established to represent the interests of the people and limit the powers of the monarchy. It evolved from the early councils of nobles advising the king to a more structured institution that played a crucial role in shaping governance, especially during the period from 1200 to 1450 when concepts of representation and law began to take root in European political thought.

Estates-General: The Estates-General was a legislative assembly in France representing the three estates of the realm: the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. This assembly was crucial in the context of political and social tensions leading up to the French Revolution, as it provided a platform for various social classes to voice their grievances and influence governmental policies.

Feudal Society: Feudal Society refers to the social and economic system that dominated medieval Europe, characterized by a hierarchy of lords, vassals, and serfs. This structure was defined by the exchange of land for military service and loyalty, creating a network of obligations that sustained local governance and protection during a time of political fragmentation and instability.

Feudalism: Feudalism was a social, economic, and political system that dominated medieval Europe, where land was granted in exchange for loyalty and service. This hierarchical structure involved relationships between lords, vassals, and serfs, which shaped the organization of society and influenced the political landscape from 1200 to 1450.

Fiefs: Fiefs were parcels of land granted by a lord to a vassal in exchange for military service and loyalty during the feudal system in medieval Europe. This system established a hierarchy of power and obligation, where lords provided protection and governance in return for the vassals' commitment to serve in battle and manage the land. Fiefs played a crucial role in shaping the political and social structures of Europe from 1200 to 1450, as they created a web of relationships that defined loyalty and land ownership.

France: France is a country in Western Europe known for its rich history, cultural influence, and significant role in global events. Throughout history, France has been a major player in political, social, and economic changes, impacting areas such as industrialization, imperialism, world wars, and decolonization.

Holy Roman Empire: The Holy Roman Empire was a multi-ethnic complex of territories in central Europe that existed from the early Middle Ages until its dissolution in 1806. It played a significant role in the political, religious, and cultural landscape of Europe, especially during the medieval and early modern periods.

Hundred Years War: The Hundred Years War was a series of conflicts fought between England and France from 1337 to 1453, primarily over claims to the French throne. This lengthy struggle marked significant developments in military technology, national identity, and the political landscape of Europe during a time of transition.

Iberian Peninsula: The Iberian Peninsula is a region located in southwestern Europe, primarily consisting of Spain and Portugal. This geographical area played a crucial role in the development of medieval and early modern Europe, serving as a cultural crossroads for various civilizations, including the Romans, Visigoths, Moors, and later Christian kingdoms.

Islam: Islam is a monotheistic Abrahamic faith founded in the 7th century CE, based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad as revealed in the Quran. It emphasizes submission to the will of Allah (God) and has significantly influenced cultures, societies, and economies across the globe.

Johannes Gutenberg's printing press: Johannes Gutenberg's printing press was a revolutionary invention developed in the mid-15th century that introduced movable type printing to Europe. This innovation drastically changed the way information was disseminated, allowing for the mass production of books and written materials, which significantly contributed to the spread of knowledge and ideas across the continent during a time of cultural and intellectual transformation.

King: A king is a male monarch who serves as the head of state in a kingdom, often wielding significant political power and authority. In the context of Europe from 1200 to 1450, kings played crucial roles in governance, warfare, and the establishment of centralized states, influencing the social and political landscape of the continent.

King Philip II of France: King Philip II of France, also known as Philip Augustus, was a prominent monarch who reigned from 1180 to 1223. His reign marked a significant period in the consolidation of royal power in France and the expansion of its territories, contributing to the development of a centralized French state during the medieval era.

Knights: Knights were mounted warriors in the medieval period, who served as vassals to lords and played a significant role in the feudal system from around the 9th century onward. They were bound by chivalric codes that emphasized loyalty, bravery, and honor, often engaging in warfare and protecting their lord's interests while also upholding social order.

Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, William Shakespeare: Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and William Shakespeare are three of the most celebrated figures of the Renaissance, a period marked by a renewed interest in art, literature, and humanism from the 14th to the 17th centuries. Da Vinci and Michelangelo were pivotal artists whose works epitomized the advancements in artistic techniques and human emotion, while Shakespeare revolutionized English literature with his plays and poetry. Together, they represent the flourishing of creativity and intellectual thought that defined Europe from 1200 to 1450.

Magna Carta: The Magna Carta, also known as the Great Charter, was a pivotal document signed in 1215 that established the principle that everyone, including the king, was subject to the law. This charter laid the foundation for modern legal systems and limited the powers of the monarchy, emphasizing individual rights and due process during a time of significant political change in Europe.

Monarch: A monarch is a sovereign head of state, often a king or queen, who typically holds power for life and whose authority is often inherited. In the context of Europe from 1200 to 1450, monarchs played a critical role in the centralization of power, the establishment of dynastic rule, and the development of early forms of nation-states.

Nobles: Nobles were members of the high social class in medieval Europe, typically holding land and titles granted by the monarch. They played a crucial role in the feudal system, providing military service and loyalty in exchange for land and privileges, shaping the political landscape from 1200 to 1450.

Reconquista: The Reconquista refers to the centuries-long series of military campaigns by Christian kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula aimed at recapturing territory from Muslim rule, which was established during the early Middle Ages. This period spanned roughly from the 8th century until 1492, culminating in the capture of Granada, the last Muslim stronghold, and marked a significant shift in power dynamics, setting the stage for Spain's emergence as a unified nation-state and influencing European politics and culture.

Reformation: The Reformation was a religious movement in the 16th century that sought to reform the practices and beliefs of the Catholic Church, leading to the establishment of Protestantism. This movement not only challenged the authority of the Pope and the Catholic Church but also had profound political, social, and economic consequences across Europe. The ideas and writings of key figures like Martin Luther spurred changes that altered the religious landscape and inspired calls for reform in other regions, even influencing trade routes like the Silk Roads.

Regionalism to Kingdoms: Regionalism refers to the political, cultural, and economic practices that emphasize the interests and identities of a specific geographic area. In the context of kingdoms from 1200 to 1450 in Europe, this concept played a crucial role in shaping local governance, cultural identities, and power dynamics, as smaller regional powers often emerged or consolidated under larger kingdoms, leading to a complex tapestry of alliances and rivalries.

Religious Conflict: Religious conflict refers to disputes and confrontations that arise from differing beliefs, practices, and interpretations of faith among various religious groups. In the context of Europe from 1200 to 1450, these conflicts often stemmed from the tension between Christian denominations, particularly between Catholics and emerging Protestant sects, as well as confrontations with non-Christian religions. Such conflicts played a significant role in shaping political boundaries, influencing power dynamics, and contributing to social unrest during this period.

Renaissance: The Renaissance was a cultural, artistic, and intellectual revival that began in Italy in the 14th century and spread throughout Europe, marking the transition from the medieval period to the modern age. This era emphasized the rediscovery of classical philosophy, literature, and art, leading to significant developments in various fields and influencing societal changes.

Serfs: Serfs were agricultural laborers bound under the feudal system to work on their lord's estate. They were not slaves but had limited rights and were tied to the land they farmed, often providing a portion of their crops as rent. This system was integral to the economy and social structure of medieval Europe, influencing social mobility and economic development.

Three-field system: The three-field system was an agricultural technique developed in medieval Europe that divided farmland into three sections, allowing farmers to rotate crops effectively. This method improved soil fertility and increased agricultural productivity by ensuring that one-third of the land remained fallow while the other two-thirds were cultivated, leading to more efficient use of land resources in the context of economic growth from 1200 to 1450.

Treaty of Calais: The Treaty of Calais was a peace agreement signed in 1559 between England and France, marking the end of the Italian Wars. This treaty solidified the territorial gains made during the conflict and established a fragile peace that lasted until the tensions of future conflicts in Europe, particularly over colonial ambitions and religious disputes.

Vassals: Vassals were individuals in the feudal system who held land granted by a lord in exchange for loyalty and military service. This relationship formed a crucial part of the social and political structure in medieval Europe, particularly between 1200 and 1450, as it helped to maintain order and organization in a time when central authority was often weak.

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