AP World History: Modern
🌍ap world history: modern review
1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam from 1200-1450
Verified for the 2025 AP World History: Modern exam•Last Updated on June 18, 2024
Dar al-Islam—"the abode of Islam"—during the 13th to 15th centuries was a vast region stretching from Spain to India, connected by shared faith, trading networks, and intellectual exchange. While Europe was still emerging from its "Dark Ages," Islamic societies were thriving centers of culture, science, and political power.
How Religion Shaped Society
The Expanding Islamic World
Islam continued to grow and shape societies across Africa and Asia during this period:
- Muslims formed communities connected by shared beliefs and practices
- The Five Pillars (declaration of faith, prayer, charity, fasting, pilgrimage) structured daily life
- Islamic law (Sharia) provided guidelines for personal conduct and social relations
- Mosques served as centers for worship, education, and community gatherings
- Arabic spread as a language of religion, scholarship, and trade
The Islamic world wasn't uniform though. Different regions developed their own traditions:
- North African Muslims incorporated local customs into their practice
- Central Asian Muslims blended Islam with steppe traditions
- South Asian Muslims developed distinctive architectural styles
- Persian Muslims maintained their language and cultural heritage
- West African Muslims created unique educational institutions
Ibn Battuta, the famous Moroccan traveler who journeyed across the Islamic world in the 14th century, wrote:
"I marveled at how I could travel for months and still hear the call to prayer five times daily, yet notice how the local foods, clothing, and customs changed dramatically from region to region."
Other Religious Traditions
Judaism continued to thrive in many parts of the Islamic world:
- Jewish communities maintained their religious practices and traditions
- Many Jews spoke Arabic and participated in Islamic intellectual culture
- Jewish merchants formed important trade networks
- Jewish scholars like Maimonides (who lived earlier but was still influential) wrote major works
- Some regions (like Muslim Spain before 1492) were known for religious tolerance
Christianity also remained important in several regions:
- Christians formed significant minorities in Egypt, Syria, and Anatolia
- Christian communities preserved ancient texts and traditions
- Christian merchants participated in trade networks
- Some Christian communities developed distinctive art forms and architecture
- Christian-Muslim intellectual exchanges occurred in centers like Baghdad
Sufism: Islam's Mystical Dimension
Sufism (Islamic mysticism) became especially influential during this period:
- orders (tariqas) spread across the Islamic world
- masters (sheikhs) attracted devoted followers
- practices included chanting, music, and meditation
- lodges provided education and social services
- poetry, especially Persian works by Rumi and Hafez, gained immense popularity
Sufism played a crucial role in spreading Islam:
- Sufi missionaries traveled to frontier regions
- Their emphasis on personal connection with God appealed to many converts
- Often incorporated local traditions into Islamic practice
- Lodges served as community centers in newly converted areas
- Saints' tombs became popular pilgrimage sites
The Rise of New Islamic States
Political Fragmentation and New Powers
The once-unified Abbasid Caliphate based in Baghdad had fragmented by this period:
- Regional governors had broken away to form independent states
- The Abbasid caliph remained as a religious figurehead but held little real power
- New groups, especially Turkic peoples from Central Asia, established their own states
- Political fragmentation didn't stop cultural or economic connections
- Trade and intellectual exchange continued across political boundaries
Turkic peoples became especially important political players:
- They originally came from the Central Asian steppes
- Many had served as slave soldiers (mamluks) before gaining power
- They brought military skills, particularly in cavalry warfare
- They generally maintained Islamic institutions while adding their own traditions
- They created diverse states across Asia and parts of Europe
Seljuk Empire: Turkic Power in the Middle East
The Seljuk Empire (c. 1037-1194) was one of the first major Turkic states:
- It controlled parts of Central Asia, Persia, and Anatolia
- The Seljuks were originally nomadic warriors who converted to Islam
- They claimed authority in the name of the Abbasid caliph
- They established the institution of the sultanate (secular political authority)
- They promoted Sunni Islam and built numerous madrasas (schools)
Although the main Seljuk Empire had collapsed by 1200, its legacy continued:
- Smaller Seljuk states survived in Anatolia
- Their institutions influenced later Turkish states
- They began the Turkification of Anatolia (modern Turkey)
- They set patterns for military organization
- Their architectural style influenced later Islamic building
Mamluk Sultanate: Slave Soldiers Take Control
The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt and Syria from 1250 to 1517:
- Mamluks were originally slave soldiers, mostly of Turkic and Circassian origin
- They overthrew the Ayyubid dynasty and established their own state
- They defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut in 1260, stopping Mongol expansion
- They developed a unique system where power passed to the strongest mamluk, not by heredity
- They maintained Cairo as a magnificent capital of Islamic culture
The Mamluks achieved several important accomplishments:
- Protected the holy cities of Mecca and Medina
- Preserved Islamic scholarship after the Mongol destruction of Baghdad
- Built spectacular mosques, madrasas, and public works
- Maintained profitable trade networks with Europe, Africa, and Asia
- Supported arts and crafts, particularly metalwork and textiles
Delhi Sultanates: Islamic Rule in South Asia
A series of five dynasties ruled northern India from Delhi between 1206 and 1526:
- Founded by Turkic military leaders who conquered parts of the Indian subcontinent
- Extended Islamic political control deeper into Hindu-majority South Asia
- Created a distinctive Indo-Islamic cultural synthesis
- Built impressive monuments like the Qutb Minar complex
- Developed administrative systems that accommodated diverse populations
These sultanates had important lasting effects:
- Introduced Islamic institutions to the Indian subcontinent
- Created new architectural forms blending Persian and Indian styles
- Established Urdu as a new language mixing Persian and local tongues
- Connected South Asia more closely to Islamic trade networks
- Laid foundations for later Mughal rule
Expansion Through Trade and Conversion
Islam continued to spread beyond its political boundaries through:
- Merchant activities along trade routes
- Missionary work by religious scholars
- Sufi orders establishing lodges in new regions
- Gradual conversion of local populations
- Cultural influence and intermarriage
This peaceful expansion was particularly important in:
- Southeast Asia, where Muslim traders established communities
- West Africa, where merchants brought Islam across the Sahara
- Central Asia, where Sufi orders attracted converts
- Coastal East Africa, where Arab and Persian traders settled
- The Indian subcontinent, beyond direct political control
Intellectual Innovations in the Islamic World
Centers of Learning and Knowledge
The Islamic world maintained impressive intellectual institutions:
- Madrasas (schools) provided formal education
- Libraries preserved ancient and new knowledge
- Observatories advanced astronomical understanding
- Hospitals developed medical knowledge
- Courts patronized scholars and artists
Famous centers of learning included:
- Cairo, where Al-Azhar University (founded earlier) continued as a major institution
- Damascus, renowned for religious scholarship
- Samarkand, which became a scientific center under Timurid rule
- Fez, where the University of Al Quaraouiyine flourished
- Delhi, where sultanate patrons supported scholars
Advances in Science and Medicine
Islamic scholars made important scientific contributions:
- Astronomers created more accurate star maps and planetary tables
- Mathematicians developed algebra and trigonometry
- Geographers produced detailed world maps
- Doctors wrote medical encyclopedias and performed surgeries
- Chemists discovered new compounds and perfected distillation
Ibn al-Nafis made a breakthrough in medicine by:
- Correctly describing pulmonary circulation (how blood moves through the lungs)
- Challenging the ancient Greek physician Galen's incorrect theories
- Using observation rather than just relying on ancient authorities
- Writing extensive medical works
- Teaching students who carried his ideas forward
Preserving and Expanding Knowledge
Islamic scholars preserved and built upon ancient learning:
- They translated Greek, Persian, and Indian texts
- They added their own observations and theories
- They wrote commentaries expanding on earlier works
- They compiled encyclopedias gathering diverse knowledge
- They created libraries that preserved learning during Europe's Middle Ages
This knowledge later helped spark Europe's Renaissance:
- Arabic texts were translated into Latin
- European scholars studied in Islamic centers like Toledo and Sicily
- Mathematical concepts including "Arabic" numerals spread to Europe
- Medical knowledge improved European healthcare
- Astronomical observations enhanced European understanding
Art, Literature, and Architecture
Artistic expression flourished in many forms:
- Persian poetry reached new heights with Rumi, Hafez, and Sa'adi
- Miniature painting developed as a sophisticated art form
- Calligraphy was elevated to a supreme artistic expression
- Architecture created magnificent mosques, madrasas, and palaces
- Decorative arts produced exquisite ceramics, metalwork, and textiles
Architecture was particularly impressive:
- Distinctive regional styles developed across the Islamic world
- Complex geometric patterns and calligraphy replaced figurative decoration
- Domes, arches, and minarets created recognizable Islamic styles
- Public buildings served both practical and aesthetic purposes
- Gardens became an important part of architectural design
Summary
From 1200 to 1450, the Islamic world experienced significant developments in religion, politics, and intellectual life. Islam continued to shape societies while accommodating regional diversity. New states emerged, particularly under Turkic leadership, as the Abbasid Caliphate fragmented. The Seljuks, Mamluks, and Delhi Sultanates each made distinctive contributions to Islamic civilization. Through trade, missionary work, and Sufi activities, Islam spread beyond political boundaries. Intellectually, Islamic scholars preserved ancient knowledge while making their own contributions to science, medicine, literature, and the arts. This dynamic civilization connected Africa, Europe, and Asia through shared cultural elements and extensive trade networks.
Key Terms to Review (16)
Abbasid Caliphate: The Abbasid Caliphate was the third Islamic caliphate, established in 750 CE, that succeeded the Umayyad Caliphate and lasted until the Mongol invasion in 1258. It is notable for its cultural, economic, and scientific advancements, as well as its role in the establishment of Baghdad as a major center of trade, learning, and culture during the Islamic Golden Age.
Allah: Allah is the Arabic word for God in Islam, representing the singular, all-powerful deity worshipped by Muslims. As the central figure of Islamic faith, Allah is viewed as the creator of the universe, the source of moral guidance, and the ultimate judge of humanity. Understanding Allah is essential to grasping the religious beliefs and practices that shaped the cultural and social structures within the Islamic world from 1200-1450.
Cordoba: Cordoba was a significant city in Islamic Spain, known for its cultural, intellectual, and architectural achievements during the Middle Ages. As a major center of learning and coexistence among Muslims, Christians, and Jews, it exemplified the cultural richness of the Iberian Peninsula during the period when Dar al-Islam flourished from 1200 to 1450.
Dar al-Islam: Dar al-Islam refers to the regions of the world where Islam is the dominant religion and where Muslims can practice their faith freely. This concept encompasses a variety of Islamic empires and states that thrived between 1200 and 1450, highlighting the cultural, economic, and political interactions within these regions as well as their influence on global trade routes.
Delhi Sultanate: The Delhi Sultanate was a series of Muslim dynasties that ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the late 12th century to the early 16th century. It marked the establishment of Muslim rule in India and played a significant role in the cultural, religious, and political landscape of the region during its time.
Egyptian Mamluks: The Egyptian Mamluks were a military class of former slave soldiers who rose to power in Egypt, establishing a sultanate that lasted from the 13th to the 16th centuries. This unique ruling group was known for their military prowess and played a significant role in the broader Islamic world during the period from 1200 to 1450, contributing to the political and social dynamics of Dar al-Islam.
Islam: Islam is a monotheistic Abrahamic faith founded in the 7th century CE, based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad as revealed in the Quran. It emphasizes submission to the will of Allah (God) and has significantly influenced cultures, societies, and economies across the globe.
Jizya: Jizya is a tax historically levied on non-Muslims in Islamic states, particularly during the caliphates and empires from 1200 to 1450. It was imposed as a form of financial obligation in exchange for protection and the right to practice one's own religion within an Islamic state. This tax reflected the broader policies of tolerance towards religious minorities while establishing a distinction between Muslim citizens and non-Muslims.
Mongol Empire: The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire in history, established in the early 13th century by Genghis Khan and expanding rapidly across Asia and into Europe. Its influence reshaped trade, culture, and political dynamics across Eurasia, connecting diverse regions through a network of roads and facilitating the exchange of ideas, goods, and technologies.
Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire was a vast and influential Islamic state that existed from the late 13th century until the early 20th century, encompassing parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It played a crucial role in shaping political, cultural, and economic landscapes across these regions, particularly as it navigated challenges related to modernization, nationalism, and imperialism.
Qutb al-Din Aibak: Qutb al-Din Aibak was a prominent figure in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in India, serving as its first ruler from 1206 to 1210. He was originally a Turkish slave who rose to power through military success, exemplifying the shifts in power dynamics within Dar al-Islam during this period, particularly as Islam spread into the Indian subcontinent.
Quran: The Quran is the holy scripture of Islam, believed to be the literal word of God as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. Central to the faith, the Quran not only provides spiritual guidance but also establishes legal, moral, and social frameworks for Muslim communities, especially during the era of Dar al-Islam from 1200-1450.
Seljuk Turks: The Seljuk Turks were a medieval Turkic state that emerged in the 11th century, playing a significant role in the political and military landscape of the Islamic world. They are known for their conquests in Persia, the Levant, and Anatolia, which helped to establish the framework for later Islamic empires and shaped the relationship between different cultures within the region.
Sharia Law: Sharia Law is a system of Islamic law derived from the Quran and Hadith, governing both personal conduct and legal matters for Muslims. It encompasses a comprehensive set of guidelines that dictate ethical, moral, and legal behavior, shaping social order within Islamic societies. During the period from 1200 to 1450, Sharia Law played a crucial role in unifying diverse Muslim communities under common legal frameworks while influencing cultural practices across Dar al-Islam.
Toledo: Toledo is a historic city in central Spain known for its rich cultural and religious diversity during the medieval period, particularly under Muslim rule from the 8th to the 11th century. It became a key center of learning and translation, where scholars from various backgrounds collaborated, making significant contributions to philosophy, science, and the arts in the context of Dar al-Islam.
Umayyad Caliphate: The Umayyad Caliphate was the first major Islamic caliphate, ruling from 661 to 750 CE, known for its vast expansion and establishment of a unified Islamic empire. The caliphate played a crucial role in the spread of Islam and the Arab culture across the Middle East, North Africa, and into parts of Europe, setting the stage for subsequent Islamic governance.