US History Unit 22 Review: American Imperialism (1890-1914)

Key Events and Timeline

• 1890: Alfred Thayer Mahan publishes "The Influence of Sea Power upon History" emphasizing the importance of naval power for global influence
• 1893: Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii is overthrown by American businessmen, leading to U.S. annexation in 1898
• 1895-1898: Cuban War of Independence against Spanish rule
  • U.S. intervenes in 1898 after the sinking of the USS Maine in Havana harbor
• 1898: Spanish-American War
  • U.S. victories in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines
  • Treaty of Paris ends the war, with the U.S. gaining control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines
• 1899-1902: Philippine-American War
  • Filipino resistance to American rule led by Emilio Aguinaldo
  • U.S. victory establishes colonial control over the Philippines
• 1901: Platt Amendment
  • Grants the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and establish naval bases (Guantanamo Bay)
• 1903: Panama Canal Zone acquired through the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty
  • Construction of the Panama Canal begins, completed in 1914
• 1904: Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine
  • Asserts U.S. right to intervene in Latin American affairs to maintain stability and protect American interests

Motivations for American Imperialism

• Economic interests
  • Access to new markets for American goods
  • Securing raw materials and resources (sugar, tobacco, rubber, minerals)
  • Protecting American business investments abroad
• Military and strategic concerns
  • Establishing naval bases and coaling stations to project power globally
  • Countering the influence of other imperial powers (Britain, Germany, Japan)
  • Securing key trade routes and strategic locations (Panama Canal, Hawaii, Philippines)
• Belief in Manifest Destiny and cultural superiority
  • Idea that the U.S. had a divine right and duty to expand its territory and influence
  • Perception of non-Western cultures as inferior and in need of "civilizing"
• Political and ideological factors
  • Desire to enhance national prestige and assert the U.S. as a world power
  • Promotion of democracy and American values abroad
  • Social Darwinism and the concept of "survival of the fittest" applied to nations
• Yellow journalism and public opinion
  • Sensationalized media coverage of events (Cuban War of Independence) to stir public support for intervention
  • Growing public enthusiasm for expansionism and asserting American power

Major Territories and Acquisitions

• Hawaii
  • Annexed in 1898 after the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani
  • Strategically important as a mid-Pacific naval base and refueling station
• Puerto Rico
  • Acquired from Spain after the Spanish-American War in 1898
  • Became an unincorporated U.S. territory with limited self-governance
• Guam
  • Ceded by Spain to the U.S. after the Spanish-American War
  • Served as a key naval base in the Pacific
• Philippines
  • Purchased from Spain for $20 million after the Spanish-American War
  • Site of the Philippine-American War (1899-1902) as Filipinos resisted American rule
  • Remained under U.S. control until granted independence in 1946
• Cuba
  • U.S. intervention in the Cuban War of Independence against Spain in 1898
  • Platt Amendment (1901) granted the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and establish naval bases
  • Guantanamo Bay Naval Base established in 1903, still under U.S. control today
• Panama Canal Zone
  • Acquired through the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty in 1903
  • Construction of the Panama Canal (1904-1914) to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
  • Remained under U.S. control until transferred to Panama in 1999

Political Figures and Their Roles

• Alfred Thayer Mahan
  • U.S. naval strategist and historian
  • His book "The Influence of Sea Power upon History" (1890) argued for the importance of naval power in achieving global influence
  • Ideas influenced American foreign policy and the buildup of the U.S. Navy
• Theodore Roosevelt
  • Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1897-1898) and later President (1901-1909)
  • Advocated for a strong navy and American expansion overseas
  • Supported U.S. intervention in the Spanish-American War and the acquisition of new territories
  • Issued the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, asserting U.S. right to intervene in Latin American affairs
• William McKinley
  • U.S. President during the Spanish-American War (1898)
  • Initially reluctant to intervene in Cuba, but ultimately supported the war after public pressure and the sinking of the USS Maine
  • Oversaw the acquisition of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines after the war
• William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer
  • Newspaper publishers and rivals who engaged in yellow journalism
  • Sensationalized coverage of events in Cuba to stir public support for U.S. intervention against Spain
• Emilio Aguinaldo
  • Filipino revolutionary leader who fought against Spanish rule and later against American occupation
  • Led the Philippine-American War (1899-1902) in resistance to U.S. colonial control
  • Captured by American forces in 1901, leading to the eventual end of organized Filipino resistance

Economic and Strategic Impacts

• Access to new markets and resources
  • U.S. businesses gained access to markets in the Caribbean, Latin America, and Asia
  • Acquisition of territories rich in resources (sugar, tobacco, rubber, minerals) benefited American industries
• Expansion of trade and investment
  • Increased trade between the U.S. and its new territories and spheres of influence
  • American businesses invested heavily in the development of infrastructure and industries in the acquired territories
• Strategic control of key locations
  • Acquisition of Hawaii, Guam, and the Philippines provided the U.S. with strategic bases in the Pacific
  • Control of the Panama Canal Zone allowed for faster naval deployment between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
  • Naval bases in Cuba (Guantanamo Bay) and Puerto Rico enhanced U.S. military presence in the Caribbean
• Economic dependence and exploitation
  • Many of the acquired territories became economically dependent on the U.S.
  • American businesses often exploited local labor and resources for their own profit
  • Unequal economic relationships between the U.S. and its territories persisted long after the period of imperialism

Cultural and Social Consequences

• Spread of American culture and values
  • U.S. territorial expansion exposed new populations to American cultural influences
  • English language, American education systems, and religious missions were introduced in the acquired territories
• Racial hierarchies and discrimination
  • American imperialism often reinforced notions of white supremacy and racial inequality
  • Indigenous populations in the acquired territories faced discrimination and marginalization
  • Racist attitudes and policies, such as segregation, were exported to the new U.S. possessions
• Cultural exchange and hybridization
  • Interaction between Americans and local populations led to cultural exchange and the emergence of hybrid cultures
  • Fusion of American and local customs, languages, and traditions occurred in places like Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines
• Resistance and cultural preservation
  • Some indigenous groups resisted American cultural influence and sought to preserve their own traditions
  • Cultural resistance movements emerged, aiming to assert local identities and challenge American dominance
• Migration and demographic changes
  • American territorial expansion led to increased migration between the U.S. and its new possessions
  • Movement of American settlers, businessmen, and military personnel to the acquired territories
  • Migration of people from the territories to the U.S. mainland, often in search of economic opportunities

Opposition and Controversies

• Anti-Imperialist League
  • Formed in 1898 to oppose U.S. annexation of the Philippines and other territories
  • Argued that imperialism contradicted American values of self-governance and democracy
  • Included prominent figures such as Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, and William Jennings Bryan
• Debate over the annexation of the Philippines
  • Controversial decision to annex the Philippines after the Spanish-American War
  • Opponents argued that the U.S. had no right to impose its rule on a foreign population
  • Supporters believed it was the U.S. duty to "civilize" and "uplift" the Filipino people
• Atrocities and war crimes
  • During the Philippine-American War, U.S. forces were accused of committing atrocities against Filipino civilians
  • Reports of torture, summary executions, and the use of "water cure" interrogation techniques
  • Revelations of these abuses fueled anti-imperialist sentiment in the U.S.
• Criticism of economic exploitation
  • Opponents of imperialism argued that American businesses were exploiting the resources and labor of the acquired territories
  • Accusations of unfair trade practices, low wages, and poor working conditions in U.S.-controlled territories
• Constitutional and legal challenges
  • Questions raised about the constitutionality of U.S. rule over overseas territories
  • Supreme Court decisions in the Insular Cases (1901) established the concept of "unincorporated territories" with limited constitutional rights
  • Debate over whether the Constitution fully applied to the inhabitants of the acquired territories

Legacy and Long-Term Effects

• Emergence of the U.S. as a global power
  • American imperialism marked the country's rise to the status of a world power
  • Acquisition of overseas territories and increased military presence projected U.S. power and influence globally
• Precedent for future U.S. interventions
  • The Spanish-American War and subsequent territorial acquisitions set a precedent for future U.S. military interventions abroad
  • Interventions in Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia throughout the 20th century often justified by the principles of the Roosevelt Corollary
• Ongoing debates over U.S. territorial status
  • The status of Puerto Rico, Guam, and other U.S. territories acquired during this period remains a topic of debate
  • Questions of self-determination, political representation, and the potential for statehood or independence persist
• Impact on U.S. foreign policy
  • The legacy of American imperialism has shaped U.S. foreign policy and relations with other nations
  • Balancing the promotion of American interests abroad with the principles of self-determination and non-intervention
• Influence on American national identity
  • The period of imperialism contributed to the development of an American national identity as a global power
  • Debates over the role and responsibilities of the U.S. in the world continue to shape American political discourse
• Long-term consequences for the acquired territories
  • The effects of American imperialism on the political, economic, and social development of the acquired territories have been complex and varied
  • Some territories have maintained close ties with the U.S., while others have sought greater autonomy or independence
  • The legacy of American rule has had lasting impacts on the governance, economies, and cultural identities of these territories