1. What financial problems led the French government to call the Estates-General in 1789?

2. How did inequality in voting within the Estates-General lead to the formation of the National Assembly?

1. What events in July 1789 marked the beginning of radical change in the French Revolution?

2. What were the most permanent early changes enacted by the National Assembly?

3. How did the king's refusal to accept a limited monarchy lead to the Reign of Terror and the rise of Napoleon?

1. How did Toussaint L'Ouverture use Enlightenment ideas and military strategy to lead a successful slave rebellion?

2. What reforms did L'Ouverture implement in Haiti, and what was his ultimate legacy despite his imprisonment by France?

3. Why was Haiti's independence in 1804 historically significant for Latin America and the Western Hemisphere?

1. How did the causes and nature of the Haitian Revolution differ from the French Revolution despite both being influenced by Enlightenment thought?

1. What were the main sources of discontent among creoles, mestizos, and other groups in Spanish colonies?

2. How did Simón Bolívar's background and Enlightenment ideals shape his vision for Latin American independence?

3. What were caudillos and how did they affect the development of newly independent Latin American nations?

1. How did the conservative creole governments limit the social and political gains promised by independence?

2. What role did women play in the Latin American revolutions, and what was Manuela Sáenz's significance?

1. How did Lola Rodríguez de Tió contribute to the independence movements in Puerto Rico and Cuba despite facing exile?

1. What obstacles to Italian unification existed before Count di Cavour's leadership, and what was his approach to overcoming them?

2. How did Cavour use realpolitik and alliances with Mazzini and Garibaldi to achieve Italian unification?

1. How did Otto von Bismarck use three wars and realpolitik to unify Germany?

2. What territories did Prussia gain through the wars of unification, and what was the significance of the new German Empire in 1871?

1. How did Italian and German unification change the balance of power in Europe and contribute to future conflict?

2. What social and economic problems persisted in Italy after unification, and how did they affect Italian migration?

1. How did the decline of Ottoman power and exposure to Western ideas fuel nationalism in the Balkans?

2. What role did cultural markers such as language and religion play in Balkan nationalist movements?

3. How did outside powers like Russia and Austria influence the independence of Balkan nations?

1. What was Ottomanism and how did Ottoman officials attempt to create a unified state?

2. How did the Ottoman attempt to minimize ethnic and religious differences ironically strengthen nationalist movements within the empire?

1. What recent developments in Europe suggest that nationalism might be declining, and what might replace it?