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7.8 1920s: Cultural and Political Controversies
Verified for the 2025 AP US History exam•Citation:MLA
The 1920s represented more than just economic prosperity and technological innovation—it was also a decade of significant cultural battles and social tension. As America became increasingly urban and diverse, traditional and modern values clashed over issues of religion, immigration, race, gender roles, and personal freedom. These conflicts revealed deeper questions about American identity as the nation struggled to reconcile rapid social change with established traditions.
Immigration and Urbanization
The 1920s marked the first time most Americans lived in cities instead of rural areas. This shift to urban living happened alongside growing fears about immigrants, especially those from Southern and Eastern Europe. Many native-born Americans worried that newcomers threatened American culture and jobs, leading to strict new immigration laws.
The First Red Scare and Immigration Restriction:
- After the Russian Revolution, fear of communism led to the "Palmer Raids" where thousands of suspected radicals were arrested
- The Emergency Quota Act (1921) and National Origins Act (1924) drastically limited immigration, particularly from Southern and Eastern Europe
- These laws reflected nativist desires to keep America primarily Northern European in ancestry
- The Sacco and Vanzetti case showed anti-immigrant feelings, as two Italian anarchists were executed despite weak evidence
Urban Migration and Its Effects:
- African Americans moved from the rural South to Northern cities in the Great Migration
- Rural white Americans also relocated to urban centers seeking economic opportunities
- Cities became more crowded and diverse, creating both vibrant cultural exchange and social tensions
- Urban neighborhoods often developed distinct ethnic and racial characters
| Migration Pattern | Key Impacts | Cultural Expressions |
|---|---|---|
| Great Migration (African Americans from South to North) | Created large Black communities in Northern cities like Chicago, Detroit, and New York | Harlem Renaissance, jazz, blues |
| Rural to urban migration | Contributed to urban growth and housing shortages | Country music, regional literature |
| Restricted European immigration | Slowed growth of ethnic communities, particularly from Southern/Eastern Europe | Emphasis on cultural preservation within existing communities |
| Mexican migration to Southwest | Expanded Hispanic communities in Texas, California, and other border states | Mexican-American art, music, and literature |
The Rise of New Cultural Expressions
As people moved to cities, they brought their cultural traditions with them, creating new art forms that expressed their experiences. These new cultural movements often celebrated identities that mainstream America had previously ignored or rejected. For many groups, art became a way to assert pride in their heritage while also claiming their place as Americans.
The Harlem Renaissance:
- African American migration to urban centers sparked a cultural flowering, particularly in New York's Harlem neighborhood
- Writers like Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, and Claude McKay explored Black identity and experience
- Musicians such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and Bessie Smith pioneered jazz and blues styles
- Visual artists including Aaron Douglas created distinctive styles incorporating African influences
Regional and Ethnic Cultural Movements:
- Southern writers explored regional themes and dialect
- Mexican-American communities in the Southwest maintained and adapted traditional cultural practices
- Native American artists began receiving recognition for traditional art forms
- Immigrant communities preserved cultural traditions while adapting to American life
Gender Roles and Modern Womanhood
Women's lives changed dramatically in the 1920s after gaining the right to vote through the 19th Amendment. Many young women, especially in cities, embraced new freedoms that shocked older generations. These changes in women's behavior and appearance symbolized broader shifts in American society.
The New Woman and Cultural Controversy:
- The "flapper" image—with bobbed hair, shorter skirts, makeup, and public smoking—symbolized the modern woman
- Dating customs changed, with more unsupervised courtship becoming common
- Women increasingly worked outside the home and attended college
- These changes provoked criticism from traditionalists who feared the breakdown of the family
Women's Rights After Suffrage:
- Alice Paul and the National Woman's Party proposed the Equal Rights Amendment in 1923
- Other women's organizations focused on social welfare legislation and maternal health
- Women entered politics, though in limited numbers compared to men
Religion, Science, and Education
The 1920s saw heated debates about evolution, religion, and education. Many religious Americans felt that modern science threatened traditional beliefs. These conflicts often divided along urban-rural lines, with cities generally embracing modern ideas while rural areas defended traditional religious values.
The Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy:
- Religious communities divided over how to respond to scientific developments
- Fundamentalists defended literal interpretation of the Bible against modern scientific theories
- Modernists sought to reconcile religious faith with scientific knowledge
- The Scopes "Monkey Trial" (1925) in Tennessee became a symbol of this clash when teacher John Scopes was prosecuted for teaching evolution
Cultural Backlash and Moral Crusades
Not everyone welcomed the changes of the 1920s. Many Americans, especially in rural areas, organized to defend traditional values against what they saw as dangerous modern influences. These traditionalists used both political action and social pressure to resist changing norms.
Prohibition and Its Consequences:
- The ban on alcohol was supported primarily by rural, Protestant Americans concerned about urban vice
- Prohibition was widely ignored in cities, where speakeasies and bootlegging flourished
- The law led to the growth of organized crime under figures like Al Capone
- Prohibition showed how difficult it was to enforce moral rules in a diverse society
The Second Ku Klux Klan:
- The KKK grew to 4-5 million members nationwide during the 1920s
- The group targeted not only African Americans but also Catholics, Jews, immigrants, and those violating traditional moral codes
- The Klan presented itself as defending "100% Americanism" and traditional Protestant values
- Its influence declined after 1925 due to leadership scandals
Competing Visions of America
The 1920s featured two very different visions of what America should be. Traditionalists wanted to preserve older cultural values and keep America primarily rural, Protestant, and Northern European in heritage. Modernists embraced diversity, new technologies, and changing social customs. These competing views clashed in politics, education, and everyday life.
| Issue | Traditional View | Modern View |
|---|---|---|
| Immigration | Restrict to preserve Anglo-Saxon heritage | Welcome diversity and cultural contributions |
| Gender Roles | Women primarily as homemakers | Women having career and personal freedom |
| Race Relations | Racial hierarchy and segregation | Growing push for equality and cultural recognition |
| Religion | Biblical literalism, traditional morality | Adapting faith to modern science and changing society |
| Urban vs. Rural | Rural life as "real America" | Embracing urban diversity and cosmopolitanism |
| Entertainment | Regulated for moral content | Artistic freedom and new forms of expression |
Legacy of 1920s Cultural Conflicts
The cultural battles of the 1920s set patterns that continue to shape American society today. The tensions between traditional and modern viewpoints didn't disappear with the end of the decade. Instead, these debates about immigration, race, gender, religion, and personal freedom have remained central to American politics and culture throughout our history.
The 1920s showed both America's ability to change and adapt and the strong resistance that often accompanies social transformation. For many groups previously excluded from full participation in American life, the decade represented important steps toward greater inclusion. At the same time, the backlash against these changes demonstrated the powerful appeal of traditional values for many Americans.
Key Terms to Review (48)
18th Amendment: The 18th Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1919, established the prohibition of alcohol, making it illegal to manufacture, sell, or transport intoxicating liquors. This amendment was a significant legal shift driven by the temperance movement and aimed to improve societal morals and public health, but it also led to unintended consequences such as the rise of organized crime and speakeasies.
A. Mitchell Palmer: A. Mitchell Palmer was the U.S. Attorney General from 1919 to 1921, known for his role in the Red Scare and leading the Palmer Raids, which targeted leftist radicals and immigrants in an effort to combat perceived threats of communism and anarchism. His actions were pivotal during the 1920s, as they reflected the widespread fear of radicalism and the government's response to social unrest.
Al Capone: Al Capone was a notorious American gangster and crime boss during the Prohibition era, who rose to infamy in the 1920s due to his involvement in organized crime, bootlegging, and violent crime in Chicago. His life and activities highlighted the lawlessness that characterized this decade, as he became a symbol of the battle between law enforcement and the criminal underworld that thrived amid Prohibition's restrictions on alcohol.
Alice Paul: Alice Paul was a prominent American suffragist, feminist, and activist who played a key role in the women's suffrage movement in the early 20th century. She is best known for her leadership in advocating for the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote in 1920. Paul's approach to activism included more militant strategies, such as protests and hunger strikes, which were crucial in drawing public attention to women's rights during her time.
Anna May Wong: Anna May Wong was the first Chinese American movie star in Hollywood, gaining fame in the 1920s as a prominent actress in silent films and early talkies. She broke racial barriers in an industry dominated by white actors, often portraying exotic characters that both showcased her talent and reflected the stereotypes of Asian women at the time. Her career highlighted the struggles and discrimination faced by Asian Americans in the entertainment industry during the 1920s.
Asiatic Barred Zone: The Asiatic Barred Zone was a provision established in the Immigration Act of 1924 that effectively prohibited immigration from certain Asian countries to the United States. This legislation reflected the nativist sentiments of the 1920s and aimed to limit the influx of immigrants from regions deemed undesirable, further reinforcing racial and ethnic discrimination in American immigration policy.
Bessie Smith: Bessie Smith was a prominent African American blues singer in the 1920s, often referred to as the 'Empress of the Blues.' She played a crucial role in the popularization of blues music, which was an important cultural expression during the Harlem Renaissance and the Roaring Twenties. Smith's powerful voice and emotional depth resonated with audiences, making her one of the highest-paid black performers of her time and influencing generations of musicians that followed.
Birth of a Nation: Birth of a Nation is a 1915 silent film directed by D.W. Griffith, known for its groundbreaking cinematic techniques but infamous for its racist portrayal of African Americans and glorification of the Ku Klux Klan. The film sparked significant controversy and debate about race relations in America, highlighting the racial tensions of the early 20th century and the impact of media on public perception and policy during the 1920s.
Calvin Coolidge: Calvin Coolidge was the 30th President of the United States, serving from 1923 to 1929. Known for his quiet demeanor and hands-off approach to government, he embodied the spirit of the 1920s, a decade marked by economic prosperity, social change, and a growing emphasis on individualism and business. Coolidge's policies favored minimal government intervention in the economy, aligning with the laissez-faire attitudes prevalent during this time.
Carmen Miranda: Carmen Miranda was a Portuguese-born Brazilian samba singer, dancer, and actress who became a prominent cultural icon in the 1920s and 1930s, known for her vibrant costumes and energetic performances. Her influence extended beyond entertainment as she played a significant role in shaping the perception of Latin American culture in the United States during a time of significant cultural exchange.
Charlie Chaplin: Charlie Chaplin was a British comedian, actor, filmmaker, and composer who became one of the most iconic figures in the film industry during the silent film era and into the 1920s. His character, 'The Tramp,' symbolized the struggles of the working class and reflected societal issues through humor and pathos. His innovative use of physical comedy and storytelling made him a beloved figure, not only entertaining audiences but also influencing the development of cinema as an art form.
Chinese Exclusion Act: The Chinese Exclusion Act was a federal law passed in 1882 that prohibited the immigration of Chinese laborers to the United States. This act was a response to rising anti-Chinese sentiment fueled by economic competition, and it marked the first significant law to restrict immigration based on nationality. Its implications extended far beyond immigration policy, influencing social dynamics, labor movements, and racial attitudes in America during various historical periods.
Clarence Darrow: Clarence Darrow was a prominent American attorney and leading figure in the legal profession during the early 20th century, renowned for his defense of controversial clients and his commitment to civil liberties. He became especially famous for his role in high-profile cases such as the Scopes Monkey Trial in 1925, where he defended a teacher accused of violating Tennessee's Butler Act by teaching evolution in schools. Darrow's legal strategies and persuasive rhetoric made him a symbol of the progressive movement and a champion for individual rights during a time of significant social change.
Dolores del Río: Dolores del Río was a prominent Mexican actress and one of the first major Latin American stars in Hollywood, known for her beauty and talent. Rising to fame during the 1920s, she became an influential figure in both Mexican cinema and American film, often symbolizing the cultural exchange between the two nations during this dynamic period.
Duke Ellington: Duke Ellington was a prominent American composer, pianist, and bandleader known for his significant contributions to jazz music during the 1920s and beyond. He played a crucial role in popularizing jazz as an art form, blending various musical styles and collaborating with other artists, which helped elevate the genre's status in American culture. His innovative approach to composition and performance set new standards for jazz music, making him one of the most influential figures of his time.
Emergency Quota Act: The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 was a U.S. federal law that established temporary limits on immigration by imposing quotas based on national origins. This legislation aimed to reduce the influx of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, reflecting the nativist sentiment and xenophobia prevalent in the post-World War I era. The act set a maximum number of immigrants allowed from each country, significantly shaping U.S. immigration policy in the 1920s.
Emma Goldman: Emma Goldman was a prominent anarchist political activist and writer, known for her advocacy of anarchism, feminism, and social justice during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Her passionate speeches and writings challenged the status quo, influencing various movements, particularly during the turbulent 1920s, as she fought against state oppression and for individual freedoms.
Equal Rights Amendment: The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) is a proposed amendment to the United States Constitution aimed at guaranteeing equal legal rights for all American citizens regardless of sex. Originally drafted in 1921 and passed by Congress in 1972, the amendment sought to eliminate legal distinctions between men and women in matters of divorce, property, employment, and other areas. The movement for the ERA gained momentum during the 1920s, a time when women were increasingly seeking greater rights and societal recognition following their suffrage victory.
Ernest Hemingway: Ernest Hemingway was an influential American author and journalist, known for his distinctive writing style characterized by brevity and understatement. His works often reflected themes of war, love, loss, and the struggles of the human condition, resonating with readers during the 1920s when he became a prominent figure in the literary scene, particularly within the Lost Generation.
F. Scott Fitzgerald: F. Scott Fitzgerald was an American novelist and short story writer, widely regarded as one of the greatest writers of the 20th century. His work captured the essence of the Jazz Age, reflecting themes of wealth, love, and disillusionment during the 1920s. Fitzgerald's most famous novel, 'The Great Gatsby,' serves as a critical commentary on the American Dream and societal excess during this vibrant yet tumultuous decade.
First Red Scare: The First Red Scare refers to the widespread fear of communism and radical leftist ideologies that swept across the United States from 1917 to 1920, triggered by the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia and the rise of labor strikes domestically. This period was marked by a government crackdown on perceived radicals, leading to mass arrests, deportations, and the establishment of a culture of suspicion against immigrants and labor activists. The First Red Scare significantly influenced American politics and society during the early 20th century, as it intertwined with the national discourse on civil liberties and national security.
Flapper: A flapper was a young woman in the 1920s who embraced a lifestyle seen as a rejection of traditional norms, characterized by a sense of freedom and a desire for self-expression. These women were known for their distinctive fashion, such as shorter hemlines and bobbed hair, as well as their bold behaviors like drinking, smoking, and dancing in jazz clubs, symbolizing the cultural shifts occurring during this dynamic decade.
Gentlemen’s Agreement with Japan: The Gentlemen’s Agreement with Japan was an informal agreement made in 1907 between the United States and Japan to limit Japanese immigration to the U.S. This arrangement arose from rising anti-Japanese sentiment in the U.S., particularly in California, and aimed to ease tensions between the two nations while addressing domestic concerns about immigration and labor competition during a time of economic change.
Harlem Renaissance: The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural, social, and artistic explosion centered in Harlem, New York, during the 1920s, highlighting the creativity and intellectual contributions of African Americans. This movement marked a period where black artists, writers, musicians, and thinkers sought to redefine their identity and express their experiences through various forms of art, significantly impacting American culture and society.
Immigration Act of 1917: The Immigration Act of 1917 was a significant piece of legislation that aimed to restrict immigration to the United States by imposing new barriers, particularly targeting certain groups considered undesirable. This act established a literacy test and created a list of barred categories, including individuals from Asia and those with criminal backgrounds, shaping the demographic landscape of the U.S. during the 1920s and beyond.
J. Edgar Hoover: J. Edgar Hoover was the first Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), serving from its founding in 1935 until his death in 1972. He played a pivotal role in shaping the FBI into a modern crime-fighting agency and was known for his controversial methods, including surveillance and intelligence gathering on suspected radicals and political dissidents during the 1920s and beyond.
Jazz Music: Jazz music is a genre that originated in the African American communities of New Orleans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, characterized by its swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms, and improvisation. It became a significant cultural force during the 1920s, symbolizing the social changes and artistic expressions of the era, while also influencing various other music genres and shaping American culture.
Josephine Baker: Josephine Baker was an American-born French entertainer, civil rights activist, and one of the most celebrated performers of the 1920s. Known for her unique blend of music, dance, and theatricality, she became an icon of the Jazz Age and a symbol of the cultural exchanges between America and Europe during a time of great social change and artistic innovation.
Langston Hughes: Langston Hughes was an influential African American poet, social activist, novelist, and playwright, prominent during the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s. He is best known for his works that celebrated African American culture, life, and identity, using jazz rhythms and vernacular speech to convey the experiences of black Americans. Hughes became a leading voice of his generation, reflecting the struggles and aspirations of the African American community during a time of racial discrimination and cultural flourishing.
Lon Chaney Sr.: Lon Chaney Sr. was an iconic American actor known for his remarkable ability to transform into various characters, particularly in the silent film era during the 1920s. His dedication to his craft and use of elaborate makeup techniques set a new standard for character acting, influencing the horror genre significantly. Chaney’s roles in films like 'The Phantom of the Opera' and 'The Hunchback of Notre Dame' made him a legendary figure, capturing audiences with his powerful performances that transcended the limitations of silent cinema.
Lost Generation: The Lost Generation refers to a group of American writers and intellectuals who were disillusioned by the horrors of World War I and felt alienated from the values and norms of mainstream American society in the 1920s. This term captures their sense of aimlessness and loss, as they grappled with the impact of the war on their lives and works, often expressing their feelings through literature that critiqued contemporary culture and examined themes of disillusionment and existential despair.
Louis Armstrong: Louis Armstrong was a groundbreaking American jazz musician, known for his virtuosic trumpet playing and unique vocal style. He played a crucial role in popularizing jazz music during the 1920s, contributing to its evolution as a major cultural force in America. His innovative approach to improvisation and his charismatic stage presence helped elevate jazz from its roots to mainstream popularity, making him one of the most influential figures in music history.
Ma Rainey: Ma Rainey was an influential American blues singer, often referred to as the 'Mother of the Blues,' who rose to prominence in the 1920s. She played a vital role in the development of blues music, showcasing its emotional depth and cultural significance during a time when African American music was gaining wider recognition and appreciation.
Marcus Garvey: Marcus Garvey was a prominent Jamaican political leader, publisher, and orator known for his role in the early 20th-century Pan-African movement and his advocacy for Black nationalism. He founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) and promoted the idea of racial pride, self-reliance, and economic empowerment for African Americans during the 1920s, a time marked by both cultural flourishing and racial tensions in the United States.
National Origins Act of 1924: The National Origins Act of 1924 was a significant piece of legislation that established strict quotas on immigration to the United States, favoring Northern and Western Europeans while severely limiting immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe and virtually excluding Asians. This law reflected the growing nativist sentiments in the U.S. during the early 20th century and marked a major response to the waves of immigration that had transformed American society.
Nativism: Nativism is the political and social ideology that favors the interests of native inhabitants over those of immigrants. This concept often emerges in response to significant immigration waves, leading to a preference for established residents and a suspicion or hostility toward newcomers. Nativism shapes societal attitudes, policies, and legislation regarding immigration and cultural integration.
Oscar Micheaux: Oscar Micheaux was a pioneering African American filmmaker and author, best known for his work during the early 20th century, particularly in the 1920s. He is recognized as one of the first major African American directors and for creating films that addressed social issues, racial stereotypes, and the complexities of Black life in America. Micheaux's influence extended beyond filmmaking as he became a prominent voice for the African American community, challenging the mainstream narratives of race and identity.
Paul Robeson: Paul Robeson was an influential African American singer, actor, and civil rights activist who gained prominence in the 1920s and 1930s. He is best known for his deep bass voice and performances in theater and film, as well as for his vocal opposition to racial discrimination and his advocacy for social justice. Robeson's artistic talents and political activism made him a significant figure during the Harlem Renaissance and beyond.
Return to Normalcy: Return to Normalcy refers to a political and social campaign slogan used by President Warren G. Harding in the 1920 election, emphasizing a desire to return to the pre-World War I way of life, characterized by stability and traditional values. This idea resonated with Americans eager to move past the turmoil of war, social change, and economic instability, advocating for a return to simpler times, economic growth, and limited government intervention in the economy.
Sacco & Vanzetti Trial: The Sacco & Vanzetti Trial was a highly publicized criminal case in the 1920s involving two Italian immigrants, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, who were convicted of robbery and murder. Their trial became a symbol of the anti-immigrant sentiment and the struggles against social injustice during the Roaring Twenties, as many believed they were wrongfully convicted due to their anarchist beliefs and ethnic background.
Scopes Monkey Trial: The Scopes Monkey Trial was a landmark legal case in 1925 in which high school teacher John T. Scopes was accused of violating Tennessee's Butler Act by teaching Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. This trial highlighted the intense cultural clash between modern science and traditional religious beliefs during the 1920s, symbolizing the broader conflict over education, science, and religion in America.
Second KKK: The Second Ku Klux Klan, formed in the early 1920s, was a revival of the original Klan that had been established during Reconstruction. Unlike its predecessor, this iteration emphasized not only white supremacy but also nativism, anti-Catholic sentiment, and anti-immigrant attitudes. It became a nationwide organization, gaining significant political power and influence during the 1920s, primarily through its use of mass rallies, parades, and community engagement.
Sessue Hayakawa: Sessue Hayakawa was a Japanese actor who became a prominent film star in the early 20th century, particularly during the 1920s. He was known for his roles in silent films and became an iconic figure representing Asian actors in Hollywood at a time when they faced significant stereotypes and discrimination. His success marked a notable shift in the representation of Asian individuals in American cinema, paving the way for future generations of actors.
Teapot Dome Scandal: The Teapot Dome Scandal was a major political scandal in the early 1920s involving the secret leasing of federal oil reserves by the U.S. government to private companies, notably under Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall. This scandal highlighted issues of corruption and the exploitation of natural resources during a time when the nation was grappling with post-World War I economic challenges. The fallout from this scandal significantly damaged the reputation of the Harding administration and underscored the need for greater oversight in government dealings.
Volstead Act: The Volstead Act, officially known as the National Prohibition Act, was legislation enacted in 1919 to provide for the enforcement of the 18th Amendment, which established prohibition in the United States. It defined intoxicating liquors and outlined the legal framework for the prohibition of the manufacture, sale, and transportation of alcohol. This act played a significant role in shaping the social and cultural landscape of the 1920s, while also reflecting broader tensions in American society.
Warren Harding: Warren Harding was the 29th President of the United States, serving from 1921 until his death in 1923. His presidency is often associated with a return to normalcy after World War I, emphasizing pro-business policies and limited government intervention in the economy. Harding's administration was marred by scandal, particularly the Teapot Dome scandal, which reflected issues of corruption and mismanagement within his cabinet.
William Jennings Bryan: William Jennings Bryan was a prominent American politician, orator, and activist known for his strong advocacy of populism and progressive causes during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He gained national fame for his fiery speeches, particularly during the 1896 presidential election, where he championed the issues of free silver and agrarian interests, marking him as a key figure in the politics of the Gilded Age. His later role in the Scopes Trial further solidified his legacy as a significant player in the cultural debates of the 1920s.
Zora Neale Hurston: Zora Neale Hurston was an influential African American writer, anthropologist, and key figure of the Harlem Renaissance, known for her novels, essays, and folklore collections that celebrated Black culture and identity. Her most famous work, 'Their Eyes Were Watching God,' is a seminal piece that explores themes of race, gender, and self-identity, showcasing the richness of African American life during the 1920s.