2.5 Trials and tribulations

Origins of Trials in Mythology

Trials and tribulations are the engine of mythological storytelling. They're the moments where heroes get tested, broken down, and rebuilt. These challenges do more than move the plot forward: they reflect what a culture values, what it fears, and what it believes about human potential.

From Gilgamesh's desperate search for immortality to Odysseus' decade-long voyage home, trials appear in virtually every mythological tradition. They function as proving grounds where characters demonstrate (or fail to demonstrate) the qualities their society prizes most.

Ancient Mythological Trials

Several foundational myths center on trials that have shaped storytelling for millennia:

• Gilgamesh's quest for immortality (Mesopotamian mythology) pushes the hero to his physical and emotional limits after the death of his friend Enkidu, ultimately teaching him to accept human mortality.
• The Twelve Labors of Heracles (Greek mythology) are imposed as divine punishment for a terrible crime, but they also offer a path to redemption through suffering.
• The Egyptian Book of the Dead describes the soul's journey through the afterlife, culminating in the weighing of the heart against the feather of Ma'at (truth and justice).
• Thor's trials in Norse mythology test his worthiness through deceptive challenges, like his attempt to lift the Midgard Serpent disguised as a cat.

Cultural Significance of Tribulations

Trials aren't just entertainment. They serve real cultural functions:

• They reinforce societal values and expectations of heroic behavior
• They work as cautionary tales or moral lessons for audiences
• They strengthen cultural identity through shared narratives
• They provide explanations for natural phenomena or historical events (Prometheus' theft of fire explains humanity's possession of technology at the cost of divine anger)
• They mirror real-world coming-of-age rituals, functioning as initiation rites within the story

Types of Mythical Trials

Mythological trials generally fall into three categories, though many stories blend them together.

Physical Challenges

These are the most visible trials, involving the hero's body and endurance:

• Battles against monsters or creatures: Theseus entering the labyrinth to fight the Minotaur
• Feats of strength or endurance: Atlas condemned to hold up the sky
• Navigating treacherous landscapes: Odysseus steering between Scylla and Charybdis
• Completing seemingly impossible tasks: Jason retrieving the Golden Fleece from a dragon-guarded grove
• Surviving environmental catastrophe: The flood narrative in the story of Noah's Ark

Mental and Emotional Tests

These trials target the hero's mind, faith, or psychological resilience:

• Riddles and puzzles: Oedipus must solve the Sphinx's riddle or die. The answer reveals his own intelligence but also sets his tragic fate in motion.
• Psychological torment or temptation: Psyche's trials to win back Eros test her patience and resolve across increasingly cruel tasks.
• Tests of faith: Job's tribulations in the Hebrew Bible strip away everything he has to test whether his devotion to God is conditional.
• Facing inner doubt: Arjuna's crisis of conscience on the battlefield in the Bhagavad Gita paralyzes him before Krishna's teaching restores his resolve.
• Resisting enchantment: Odysseus has himself tied to the mast so he can hear the Sirens' song without being lured to his death.

Moral Dilemmas

Some of the most compelling trials force heroes to choose between competing goods or accept terrible consequences:

• Duty vs. personal desire: Rama accepts exile in the Ramayana to uphold his father's honor, sacrificing his own claim to the throne.
• Self-sacrifice for others: Prometheus endures eternal punishment for giving fire to humanity.
• Justice vs. mercy: Solomon's famous judgment tests two women's claims to a child by revealing who truly loves it.
• Confronting consequences: Oedipus' realization that he has fulfilled the very prophecy he tried to escape.
• Family loyalty vs. civic law: Antigone defies King Creon's decree to bury her brother, choosing divine law over human authority.

Heroes and Their Trials

Greek Heroes vs. Roman Heroes

Greek and Roman heroes face trials shaped by their cultures' different priorities:

• Greek heroes often face trials imposed by gods or fate, with an emphasis on individual glory (Perseus slaying Medusa at Athena's behest).
• Roman heroes' trials frequently involve founding or defending civilization (Aeneas endures years of wandering to establish what will become Rome).
• Greek heroes tend to have tragic flaws, called hamartia, that lead to their downfall (Achilles' pride makes his heel vulnerability fatal).
• Roman heroes emphasize civic virtues like pietas (duty to gods, family, and state) and gravitas (seriousness of purpose). Cincinnatus, for example, leaves his farm to lead Rome in crisis, then returns to farming once the crisis passes.
• The core difference: Greek mythology celebrates the exceptional individual, while Roman mythology prizes service to the collective.

Trials as Character Development

Trials don't just happen to heroes. They change them.

• Challenges reveal hidden strengths or expose weaknesses the hero didn't know they had
• Overcoming obstacles leads to genuine self-discovery and growth
• Failures can be just as important as successes, humbling heroes and teaching hard lessons
• Successive trials build resilience and adaptability over the course of a narrative
• Transformation through trials often results in elevated status or divine reward, signaling that the hero has earned a new identity

Symbolism in Mythical Trials

Overcoming Personal Weaknesses

Most mythological trials work on two levels: the literal and the symbolic. The external challenge almost always mirrors an internal one.

• Slaying monsters represents conquering inner fears or flaws (Beowulf defeating Grendel can be read as confronting the violence within his own warrior culture)
• Navigating labyrinths symbolizes finding clarity through confusion or doubt (Theseus in the Labyrinth)
• Resisting temptation signifies mastery over one's desires (Odysseus refusing Calypso's offer of immortality)
• Lifting heavy objects represents bearing life's burdens (Atlas holding the world)
• Taming wild beasts symbolizes controlling one's primal instincts (Heracles capturing Cerberus, the three-headed guardian of the underworld)

Societal Expectations vs. Individual Growth

Trials also dramatize the tension between what society demands and what the individual needs:

• Fulfilling prophecies reflects the tension between destiny and free will (Oedipus cannot escape the oracle's prediction no matter how hard he tries)
• Choosing duty over desire represents societal pressure against individual needs (Arjuna's battlefield dilemma in the Bhagavad Gita)
• Defying authority symbolizes challenging established norms (Prometheus defying Zeus to benefit humanity)
• Rescuing others at personal cost reflects societal expectations of selfless heroism (Perseus saving Andromeda)
• Returning from the underworld represents transcending the limits society places on human experience (Orpheus' attempt to rescue Eurydice)

Trials as Narrative Devices

Plot Advancement Through Tribulations

From a storytelling perspective, trials are among the most effective tools for building a compelling narrative:

• They create tension and conflict that drive the story forward
• Each challenge overcome reveals new information or skills the hero will need later
• Failures often lead to unexpected plot twists or deeper character growth
• Trials serve as milestones, marking significant stages in the narrative arc
• Overcoming a trial frequently unlocks access to new realms, allies, or levels of understanding

Foreshadowing in Mythical Trials

Skilled mythological storytelling plants seeds early that pay off later:

• Small early challenges hint at greater obstacles: Jason's initial tasks before the quest for the Golden Fleece prepare both him and the audience for what's ahead.
• Prophecies predict future trials: The Oracle of Delphi's cryptic messages warn heroes of what's coming, though the warnings are often misunderstood until it's too late.
• Symbolic objects reappear: Excalibur in Arthurian legends first appears as a marker of destiny and returns as a tool for the story's climactic moments.
• Character flaws revealed early become critical later: Achilles' arrogance in minor conflicts foreshadows the pride that contributes to his death.
• Skills from early trials prove crucial in later tests: Theseus' ability to navigate complex spaces pays off when he faces the labyrinth.

Psychological Aspects of Trials

Jung's Archetypes in Tribulations

Carl Jung identified recurring psychological patterns, or archetypes, that appear across mythological traditions. Trials bring these archetypes into direct conflict:

• The Hero embodies the protagonist facing trials (Gilgamesh, Heracles)
• The Shadow represents the dark, repressed aspects of the self that must be confronted (the Jekyll and Hyde dynamic)
• The Wise Old Man/Woman offers guidance through trials (Merlin in Arthurian legends)
• The Trickster creates chaos and unexpected challenges that test the hero's adaptability (Loki in Norse mythology)
• The Great Mother can both nurture and challenge the hero (Thetis in Greek mythology both protects Achilles and sets the conditions for his fate)

Campbell's Hero's Journey

Joseph Campbell's monomyth framework maps the stages that trials typically follow across cultures. The key stages involving trials include:

1. The Call to Adventure initiates the hero's trials (Bilbo Baggins receiving Gandalf's invitation in The Hobbit)
2. Crossing the Threshold marks the point of no return into the world of trials (Alice falling down the rabbit hole into Wonderland)
3. The Road of Trials presents a series of challenges testing the hero's abilities and character (Odysseus' encounters with the Cyclops, Circe, and the underworld)
4. The Ultimate Boon represents achieving the quest's goal (finding the Holy Grail)
5. The Return involves bringing the wisdom gained from trials back to the ordinary world (the Buddha's enlightenment followed by his decision to teach others)

Cultural Variations of Trials

Eastern vs. Western Mythological Trials

Eastern and Western traditions tend to emphasize different kinds of trials, though there's significant overlap:

• Eastern myths often emphasize inner spiritual trials (the Buddha's resistance to Mara's temptations under the Bodhi tree)
• Western myths tend to focus on external, physical challenges (the Twelve Labors of Heracles)
• Eastern trials frequently involve self-cultivation and the pursuit of enlightenment (Sun Wukong's journey in Journey to the West transforms him from a rebellious trickster into a disciplined spiritual seeker)
• Western trials often center on proving worth or gaining glory (Perseus' quest to slay Medusa)
• Eastern mythological trials may span multiple lifetimes through reincarnation (Hindu mythology's cycle of birth, death, and rebirth)

These are tendencies, not absolute rules. Plenty of Western myths involve inner transformation, and Eastern myths feature physical combat.

Indigenous Myths and Tribulations

Indigenous mythological traditions around the world feature trials deeply connected to their specific environments and communal values:

• Australian Aboriginal Dreamtime stories feature trials related to the land and interactions with nature spirits
• Native American vision quests involve personal trials of fasting and isolation for spiritual growth and guidance
• Polynesian myths often include trials of navigation and ocean mastery (Maui's exploits with his magical fish hook)
• African tribal myths feature trials that test communal values, cooperation, and respect for tradition
• Inuit mythology includes trials of survival against the harsh Arctic environment, reflecting the real daily challenges of Arctic life

Modern Interpretations of Trials

Trials in Contemporary Literature

Modern literature draws heavily on mythological trial structures, often adapting them to new contexts:

• Dystopian novels feature protagonists overcoming societal trials (Katniss in The Hunger Games faces literal arena combat that mirrors ancient gladiatorial myths)
• Fantasy literature reinterprets classic mythological trials in new settings (Harry Potter's tasks in the Triwizard Tournament echo Heracles' labors)
• Science fiction explores trials related to technology and human nature (Dune's Paul Atreides faces the Gom Jabbar, a test of his humanity)
• Magical realism blends everyday challenges with mythical elements (One Hundred Years of Solitude)
• Postmodern literature deconstructs traditional trial narratives, questioning whether heroic quests have clear resolutions (If on a winter's night a traveler)

Mythical Trials in Popular Culture

• Superhero narratives adapt mythological trials for modern audiences (Wonder Woman's origin draws directly from Greek mythology)
• Video games structure gameplay around overcoming trials and quests (The Legend of Zelda follows Campbell's monomyth closely)
• Reality TV creates artificial trials based on mythic structures (Survivor uses elimination-based challenges that echo trial-by-ordeal narratives)
• Modern films reinterpret classic myths (O Brother, Where Art Thou? retells the Odyssey in Depression-era Mississippi)
• Graphic novels blend mythological trials with contemporary themes (Neil Gaiman's Sandman series weaves together myths from dozens of traditions)

Themes in Mythological Trials

Redemption Through Tribulation

Trials frequently serve as a path back from disgrace or moral failure:

• They offer characters opportunities to atone for past misdeeds
• Overcoming challenges can restore a fallen hero's honor or status
• Suffering through trials may lead to forgiveness from gods or society
• The process of enduring tribulations can purify or cleanse the hero
• In some cases, successfully completing trials can transform a villain into a hero

Transformation and Rebirth

One of the deepest patterns in mythological trials is the idea that the hero who returns is not the same person who left:

• Physical transformations often symbolize inner change (Odysseus disguised as a beggar upon returning to Ithaca)
• Death and resurrection motifs represent spiritual rebirth through trials (the Osiris myth in Egyptian tradition)
• Metamorphosis tales show drastic changes resulting from trials (Ovid's Metamorphoses is an entire collection built on this theme)
• Rites of passage in myths mark transformative life stages through trials
• Alchemical imagery in myths symbolizes personal transformation (the idea of turning lead into gold as a metaphor for refining the self)

Literary Analysis of Trials

Metaphorical Significance of Trials

When analyzing mythological trials in a literary context, pay attention to recurring symbolic landscapes and actions:

• Labyrinths represent the complexity of life's journey and the difficulty of self-knowledge (the Minotaur's maze)
• Climbing mountains symbolizes overcoming obstacles and reaching higher understanding (Moses on Mount Sinai)
• Crossing bodies of water signifies transition and rebirth (the Israelites crossing the Red Sea)
• Defeating monsters represents conquering societal or personal evils (St. George and the Dragon)
• Solving riddles symbolizes gaining wisdom and self-knowledge (Oedipus and the Sphinx)

Trials as Social Commentary

Mythological trials don't exist in a vacuum. They reflect the societies that created them:

• The specific challenges heroes face reveal what a culture considers difficult or important
• Challenges to authority in myths can critique real-world power structures
• The nature of trials can reveal societal attitudes toward gender, class, or race
• Mythical trials may allegorically address contemporary social issues of their time
• The rewards or punishments attached to trials reflect a culture's concept of justice and fairness

Trials and Religious Mythology

Biblical Trials and Tribulations

The Hebrew Bible and New Testament contain some of the most widely known trial narratives:

• Job's suffering tests whether his faith is conditional on prosperity. God allows Satan to strip away everything Job has, and Job's response raises profound questions about innocent suffering.
• Abraham's binding of Isaac (the Akedah) demonstrates obedience and trust pushed to an extreme limit.
• Jesus' temptation in the desert represents resistance to worldly power, wealth, and spectacle over 40 days.
• Moses leading the Israelites through the wilderness tests the faith and endurance of an entire people over 40 years.
• Daniel in the lion's den exemplifies unwavering belief in the face of mortal danger.

Trials in Non-Western Religions

Religious traditions outside the Judeo-Christian framework approach trials with different emphases:

• Buddhism: The Four Noble Truths frame all of existence as involving suffering (dukkha), with the Eightfold Path as the method for overcoming it.
• Hinduism: The concept of karma connects actions to future trials or rewards across lifetimes, making every trial part of a larger cosmic pattern.
• Taoism: Emphasizes harmonizing with nature's challenges rather than fighting against them, following the principle of wu wei (effortless action).
• Shinto: Purification rituals aim to overcome spiritual trials and remove impurities that separate humans from the divine.
• Zoroastrianism: Centers on the cosmic trial between Ahura Mazda (good) and Angra Mainyu (evil), with humans choosing sides through their actions.

Gender Roles in Mythical Trials

Female Heroes and Their Tribulations

Female characters in mythology often face trials that are distinct from those of male heroes, though no less demanding:

• Psyche's trials to reunite with Eros (sorting seeds, gathering golden fleece, fetching water from the Styx, descending to the underworld) challenge the assumption that women are passive in myth.
• Atalanta's footrace subverts expectations by making a woman the athletic challenger rather than the prize.
• Artemis' choice of eternal maidenhood represents active resistance to societal norms around marriage and motherhood.
• Penelope's trials of fidelity and cunning (her weaving trick to delay the suitors) complement Odysseus' physical challenges with intellectual ones.
• Inanna's descent to the underworld in Sumerian mythology showcases female strength, death, and rebirth long before similar male-centered narratives.

Masculine vs. Feminine Trials

Mythology tends to assign different types of trials based on gender, though many stories complicate these patterns:

• Masculine trials often emphasize physical strength and combat (Beowulf's battles)
• Feminine trials frequently involve wisdom, patience, or endurance (Penelope's weaving)
• Some myths deliberately challenge gender norms by reversing typical trial types (Atalanta's athleticism, for instance)
• Androgynous or gender-fluid figures may face trials blending both types (Tiresias, who lived as both man and woman, gains unique wisdom from this dual experience)
• Modern reinterpretations often reimagine gendered trials to reflect contemporary values (Neil Gaiman's American Gods)

Ethical Considerations in Trials

Justice vs. Cruelty in Tribulations

Mythological trials raise uncomfortable questions about fairness:

• Divine punishment in myths often seems disproportionate to the offense (Prometheus' eternal torment for helping humanity)
• Trials imposed on innocent characters challenge the idea of cosmic justice (Job did nothing wrong)
• The suffering endured in trials can be viewed as either cruel or necessary for growth, depending on perspective
• Myths frequently explore the tension between mercy and retribution
• The arbitrary nature of some mythical trials mirrors real-world injustices, which may be part of the point

Free Will in Mythological Trials

One of the most persistent questions in mythology is whether heroes truly choose their trials or are fated to face them:

• Predestined trials question the extent of human agency (Oedipus fulfills the prophecy despite every effort to avoid it)
• Voluntary trials emphasize free will (Jason chooses to pursue the Golden Fleece)
• Divine intervention blurs the line between fate and choice (gods frequently help or hinder heroes mid-trial)
• Some myths explore what happens when characters refuse or try to avoid fated trials, usually with worse consequences
• This tension between destiny and personal choice is often the central driving force of mythological narratives