1. What is materialism and how does it relate to the concept of physicalism?

2. How did the failure of the 1848 revolutions influence intellectual thought during the Victorian era?

1. What are the two main principles of positivism and how do they define knowledge?

2. Who was Auguste Comte and what was his role in founding positivism?

1. What did modernists reject and what did they embrace instead?

2. How did rapid scientific and technological change influence modernist approaches to creativity and expression?

1. What is irrationalism and how did it differ from rational interpretations of human behavior?

2. What did Friedrich Nietzsche mean by nihilism and how did he view traditional European morality?

3. How did Georges Sorel's syndicalism propose to transform society and government?

4. What was Henri Bergson's contribution to modernist thought through process metaphysics?

1. How did developments in quantum mechanics and relativity challenge Newtonian physics?