1. How did the Enlightenment, French Revolution, and Industrial Revolution create the context for 19th-century European political change?

2. What new ideologies emerged among Europe's industrial working class and rising middle class after 1815?

3. How did liberal and conservative ideologies respond differently to demands for political and social reform?

4. How did nationalism reshape the balance of power in 19th-century Europe, and what was the role of unified Italy and Germany?

5. Why did Austria, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia work to suppress nationalist revolutions, and what were the consequences?

6. How did international conflicts and failed alliances among European nations contribute to growing tensions throughout the 1800s?

1. How did industrialization fuel a second wave of European imperialism in the 19th century?

2. What economic motivations drove European nations to compete for control of Africa and Asia?

3. How did Europeans justify imperialism, and how did colonized populations respond to European control?

4. How did economic competition among imperial powers and colonial resistance contribute to international tensions?

1. What cultural and artistic forces influenced European thought between the late 18th and early 20th centuries?

2. How did objectivity and subjectivity represent competing approaches to artistic expression during this period?