One notable feature about these empires is that a number of them were the catalyst, if not outright cause, of several new or modified religious movements. These changes were sometimes used or supported by rulers, often to enhance their prestige.
🎥Watch: WHAP - Religion in Early Modern Empires
There have been many land-based empires throughout history, each with its own set of belief systems and cultural practices. Some examples of belief systems that were held by land-based empires include:
- Hinduism: This was the dominant religion in the Indian subcontinent and was the belief system of several land-based empires in India, including the Maurya Empire (321-185 BC) and the Mughal Empire (1526-1857). Hinduism is a polytheistic religion that believes in a cycle of reincarnation and the ultimate goal of achieving moksha, or spiritual liberation.
- Buddhism: This belief system originated in ancient India and was the dominant religion in several land-based empires in Asia, including the Maurya Empire (321-185 BC) and the Tibetan Empire (618-841). Buddhism teaches the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as a means to end suffering and achieve enlightenment.
- Islam: This monotheistic religion originated in the Arabian Peninsula and was the belief system of several land-based empires, including the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) and the Ottoman Empire (1299-1922). Islam teaches the belief in one God and the importance of following the Five Pillars of Islam.
- Christianity: This monotheistic religion originated in the Middle East and was the belief system of several land-based empires, including the Byzantine Empire (330-1453) and the Holy Roman Empire (962-1806). Christianity teaches the belief in one God and the importance of following the teachings of Jesus Christ.
- Confucianism: This ethical and philosophical system originated in ancient China and was the belief system of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912), the last imperial dynasty of China. Confucianism emphasizes the importance of social harmony, filial piety, and the respect for authority and tradition.
Religious Movements
The Protestant Reformation
In Europe, the newly created Protestant movement within Christianity, which opposed the Catholic Church in Rome, found strong supporters in Northern Europe and in parts of France. Rulers such as Henry IV in France or Albert Duke of Prussia promoted or tolerated Protestant ideas that might have otherwise been crushed by the Catholic Counter-Reformation and Inquisition, which received support from Catholic monarchs. But like their Catholic counterparts, Protestant monarchs used the newly formed Protestant churches to break away from the church in Rome and seize its property.
Martin Luther and reformers in other parts of the world often contested the authority of existing religious structures and sometimes sought to build new religious orders. Empires tried to use religion to reinforce authority, but this did not always go smoothly. Image Courtesy of thegospelcoalitio
What Was The Protestant Reformation?
The Protestant Reformation was a major 16th-century European movement that sought to reform the Roman Catholic Church. It was led by Martin Luther, a German monk and theologian, who challenged the authority of the Pope and the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. Luther's ideas, which were based on the belief that people could be saved through faith alone and not through good works or the Church's sacraments, were controversial and led to a split within the Church.
Who Was Martin Luther?
Martin Luther was a German monk and theologian who is known for his role in the Protestant Reformation, a 16th-century movement that sought to reform the Roman Catholic Church. In 1517, Luther published the "Ninety-Five Theses," which were a list of criticisms of the Church's practices, particularly the sale of indulgences. The "Ninety-Five Theses" sparked a debate within the Church that eventually led to a split between Protestant and Roman Catholic Christians.
Luther's ideas, which were based on the belief that people could be saved through faith alone and not through good works or the Church's sacraments, were controversial and challenged the authority of the Pope. He translated the Bible into German, making it more widely available to the general public, and he advocated for reforms in the Church, including the use of vernacular languages in worship and the elimination of the sale of indulgences.
The Protestant Reformation had far-reaching consequences, and it led to the creation of Protestant churches, such as the Lutheran Church, the Calvinist Church, and the Anglican Church. The Protestant Reformation also had a profound impact on European society, and it contributed to the development of the modern nation-state and the democratization of Europe.
South Asian Empires
In South Asia, the Mughal Empire represented a much deeper connection between Islam and Hinduism than had previously existed. True, Muslims had been in South Asia since the beginning of Islam, but now a Muslim power controlled almost the entire continent. These deeper interactions between the ruling faith and the majority faith led to, and were a result of, popular religious movements such as Sufism and the Bhakti Movement.
What is the Mughal Empire?
The Mughal Empire was an imperial power in South Asia from the early 16th to the mid-19th century. It was established and ruled by a Muslim dynasty of Chaghatai Turco-Mongol origin, who claimed direct descent from both Timur, the Turco-Mongol conqueror, and Genghis Khan, through his son Chaghatai Khan. The Mughal Empire was marked by a period of economic, cultural, and architectural prosperity, and is considered one of the greatest empires in the history of India. At its peak, the Mughal Empire spanned much of the Indian subcontinent, including modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and parts of Afghanistan. The Mughal emperors were known for their cultural achievements and their support for the arts, and their rule had a profound and lasting impact on the development of South Asia.
What is Sufism?
Sufism is a mystical Islamic belief system, with its own set of rituals, beliefs, and practices. It seeks to achieve a greater understanding of Islam and a closer relationship with God through prayer, meditation, and the pursuit of spiritual truth. Sufism has a long history, dating back to the early days of Islam, and it has played an important role in the development of the religion. Sufis follow a spiritual leader, or shaikh, and often live and worship in communities called "orders" or "brotherhoods." Sufism emphasizes the importance of personal experience and individual approach to understanding God, rather than relying solely on scriptural study. It has had a significant influence on Islamic culture and has produced many influential scholars and mystics over the centuries.
What is the Bhakti Movement?
The Bhakti movement was a spiritual and social movement that originated in ancient India and spread throughout the Indian subcontinent. It was based on the belief in the power of devotion to a personal god or deity as a means of achieving spiritual liberation. The Bhakti movement emphasized the importance of an emotional and personal relationship with God, and it rejected the more formal, ritualistic aspects of traditional Hinduism. The Bhakti movement was influential in the spread of Hinduism and had a significant impact on the development of Indian music and literature. It also contributed to the development of Hindu-Muslim relations and played a role in the social and cultural changes that occurred in India during this period.
Additionally, a brand new syncretic religion known as Sikhism emerged in northern South Asia, containing many elements of Islam (monotheism) and Hinduism (reincarnation and karma). It is not an accident that Sikhism emerged in northern South Asia where Islamic-Hindu contacts were strongest.
What is Sikhism?
Sikhism is a monotheistic religion founded in the 15th century in the Punjab region of India. It is the fifth-largest religion in the world, with over 27 million followers. The central belief of Sikhism is the existence of one eternal God, who is the same for all people and all religions. Sikhism emphasizes the equality of all people and rejects the caste system that is a part of Hinduism. The core beliefs of Sikhism are contained in the Guru Granth Sahib, the holy scripture of the Sikh religion, which is considered the eternal, living guru of the Sikhs. Sikhism also emphasizes the importance of performing good deeds and living a disciplined, honest, and compassionate life. The faith is known for its strong emphasis on social justice and its commitment to serving the poor and marginalized members of society.
(A note: historians and the AP World Exam use the term syncretic to describe Sikhism as a combination of Islam and Hinduism. However, many Sikhs do not describe their religion as only syncretic; and, all religions are syncretic in some ways)
🎥Watch: WHAP - Changing Religions from 1450-1750
Sunni-Shia Split
In the broader Islamic World, the political competition between the Ottomans and Safavids over territory and trade intensified the division between Sunni and Shia Muslims. The Sunni-Shia split occurred around 700 CE, long before either empire, but the conflict between them intensified, especially considering the Ottoman Sultan claimed the title of Caliph, leader of the Muslim world, and the Safavid Shahs also claimed divine connection via the Imams (leaders) of the Shia community.
In the Americas, both the Aztec and Inca Empires continued earlier religious traditions that had developed in those regions. The Aztec religious pantheon included several Mayan deities and the Aztecs used the Mayan script as well. The Incas continued the religious practices of the Moche who came before them (and the Chavin before them influenced the Moche), specifically that of worshipping the sun and moon, though in the Moche tradition the moon was more powerful. Both the Aztecs and Incas practiced human sacrifice, as did almost every Pre-1492 American Culture before them, though the Aztecs in particular practiced it to a much greater degree.
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Catholic Reformation | The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation, involving religious reforms and efforts to strengthen Catholic faith and practice. |
| Christian traditions | The established practices, doctrines, and beliefs within Christianity that had developed over centuries before the Reformation. |
| Hinduism | A major world religion originating in South Asia, characterized by diverse beliefs, practices, and a complex pantheon of deities. |
| Islam | A monotheistic religion founded in the 7th century based on the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad and the Quran. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| Protestant Reformation | A religious movement beginning in the 16th century that challenged Catholic Church authority and led to the establishment of Protestant churches. |
| Safavid Empire | A Persian Islamic empire that ruled from the 16th to 18th century and was predominantly Shi'a Muslim. |
| Shi'a | A branch of Islam whose followers believe in the spiritual authority of the Imams and emphasize the line of succession from the Prophet Muhammad. |
| Sikhism | A monotheistic religion that developed in South Asia during the 15th-16th centuries from interactions between Hindu and Islamic traditions. |
| Sunni | The largest branch of Islam, whose followers accept the Sunna (teachings and practices of the Prophet Muhammad) and the authority of the caliphs. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the Protestant Reformation and why did it happen?
The Protestant Reformation was a 16th-century movement that split Western Christianity. Reformers like Martin Luther and John Calvin criticized Catholic practices (especially selling indulgences), challenged papal authority, and promoted ideas like salvation by faith and Bible access in local languages. Political rulers (e.g., Henry VIII’s English Reformation) also used reform to assert control over churches. Causes: church corruption and financial abuses, Renaissance humanism that encouraged questioning, the printing press spreading critiques quickly, and rulers who wanted more autonomy from Rome. The Reformation led to new Protestant churches, the Catholic Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits), religious wars (Thirty Years’ War, conflicts with Huguenots), and long-term changes in European politics and society. On the AP exam this fits Topic 3.3 (Learning Objective C)—show continuity/change in belief systems and link to political outcomes. For a focused review, see the Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
How did the Protestant Reformation change Christianity from 1450 to 1750?
The Protestant Reformation (c. 1517–1648) changed Christianity by splitting Western Christendom and creating new Protestant traditions (Luther, Calvin, English Reformation under Henry VIII) that rejected aspects of Catholic authority and practices. That break produced state-aligned churches, reduced papal control in many places, and increased religious diversity—which led to conflicts like the Thirty Years’ War and persecution of groups such as Huguenots. The Catholic Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits) reformed Catholic doctrine and institutions and helped Christianity grow globally through renewed missionary activity. Continuity: core Christian beliefs and many church structures persisted even as authority and practice shifted. For AP exam focus, use continuity-and-change-over-time and causation in your thesis, cite specific leaders/events, and connect to outcomes (wars, state churches, missionary expansion). Review Topic 3.3 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm), Unit 3 overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history) to prep.
What's the difference between Sunni and Shia Islam and why did they split?
Sunni and Shi'a split over who should lead the Muslim community after Prophet Muhammad's death. Sunnis accepted elected caliphs (community leaders) and emphasized the early Muslim community’s consensus; Shi'a believed leadership should stay in Muhammad’s family, specifically Ali and his descendants (Imams) with both political and spiritual authority. Over time this disagreement produced different religious practices, legal schools, and views of authority. By 1450–1750 the split had major political consequences: the Sunni Ottoman Empire and the Shi'a Safavid Empire institutionalized opposite sects, making religion part of state identity and intensifying rivalry (see CED keyword: Sunni–Shi'a split; Battle of Chaldiran as a key conflict). For AP World, connect this to Topic 3.3 (belief systems shaping empire politics). For a focused review, check the Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Why did political rivalries between the Ottoman and Safavid empires make the Sunni-Shia split worse?
Political rivalries made the Sunni–Shia split worse because both empires turned religious difference into state identity and political propaganda. The Safavids enforced Twelver Shi'ism as a marker of loyalty, while the Ottoman state promoted Sunni Islam; that made religion a test of political allegiance, not just belief. Border conflicts and the 1514 Chaldiran engagement (Ottoman–Safavid) convinced both rulers that sectarian unity mattered for security, so each regime punished or marginalized the other's co-religionists in contested areas. That hardened distrust, encouraged clerical support for state policies, and linked local disputes to imperial rivalries—so theological differences became sources of political conflict. For AP exam prep, this is exactly the CED point about how political rivalries intensified the Sunni–Shi'a split (Topic 3.3, LO C). Review this explanation and related examples in the Topic 3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Can someone explain how Sikhism developed from Hinduism and Islam interactions?
Sikhism emerged in 15th–16th century Punjab where Hindu and Muslim communities interacted a lot. Guru Nanak (founder) blended ideas from both: like Islam, he stressed one God and direct devotion; like the Hindu Bhakti movement he emphasized personal devotion over ritual and rejected caste. Sufi ideas (mystical Islam) influenced Sikh practices of devotion and poetry, while Bhakti shaped its use of vernacular Punjabi and devotional hymns. Sikh institutions (gurdwara, community kitchen/langar) promoted social equality and communal service, challenging Hindu caste norms and some Islamic communal distinctions. Under the Mughal Empire and rulers like Akbar’s tolerant policies, these interactions continued to shape Sikh growth and identity. For AP World you can link this to continuity/change in belief systems (Topic 3.3) and examples of syncretism from the CED. For a quick review, see the Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What were the main causes of religious conflicts between empires during this time period?
Religious conflicts between empires (1450–1750) usually came from three main causes: - Doctrinal splits and reform movements—e.g., the Protestant Reformation vs. Catholic Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits) created interstate tensions in Europe and fueled wars like the Thirty Years’ War. - State religion and legitimation—rulers used religion to justify authority or differentiate rivals (Ottoman Sunni vs. Safavid Shi’a rivalry; the Battle of Chaldiran reflects this), so religious difference became political competition. - Cultural contact and resistance—missionary activity and religious syncretism sometimes threatened local elites (missions in Asia or Africa) provoking restrictive policies; conversely rulers like Akbar promoted tolerance to reduce friction (Mughal policies, Sikhism’s emergence amid Hindu-Muslim interaction). For AP tasks, connect these causes to continuity/change and causation in a DBQ/LEQ. For review, see the Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about belief systems changing in empires from 1450-1750?
Start with a clear thesis that answers “how and to what extent belief systems changed” in empires 1450–1750 (name causes: Reformation, Sunni–Shi’a rivalry, Sikhism, Bhakti/Sufism, Counter-Reformation). Contextualize briefly—land-based empires expanding, religious reform, and state-building. Use at least four of the DBQ documents to support specific claims (e.g., Martin Luther or Council of Trent evidence for Christianity; Battle of Chaldiran or Safavid–Ottoman sources for Islam; Guru Nanak/Akbar for Sikhism and syncretism). Explain POV/purpose/audience for at least two documents (sourcing). Add one piece of outside evidence (e.g., Henry VIII’s English Reformation, Jesuit missions, or Akbar’s policy of religious toleration). Show change vs. continuity (growth of Christianity, intensified Sunni–Shi’a split, emergence of new syncretic movements). End by demonstrating complexity (multiple causes, different regional effects). For topic review and practice DBQs, see Fiveable’s Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and 1000+ practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
I'm confused about how Christianity actually grew during this period - didn't the Reformation divide it?
Good question—the Reformation did split Christianity, but that split helped it grow overall. From 1450–1750 the Protestant Reformation (Luther, Calvin, Henry VIII) created new branches that spread across northern Europe, while the Catholic Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits) reinvigorated Catholicism and expanded missionary work in the Americas, Asia, and Africa. So change = fragmentation; continuity = expansion. Politically, rulers used religion to legitimize authority, which also helped both Protestant and Catholic churches reach new populations. For AP exam work, note both “break” (Reformation) and “growth” (missionary activity, Jesuit schools, Council of Trent reforms) when explaining continuity and change (CED Learning Objective C). For review, check the Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What are some specific examples of how belief systems stayed the same vs changed during 1450-1750?
Changes: belief systems split, mixed, and sometimes grew in power. Examples: the Protestant Reformation (Martin Luther, John Calvin, Henry VIII) broke from Catholic practice and reshaped European Christianity; the Catholic Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits) reformed Catholicism and increased missionary activity. Sunni–Shi'a rivalry intensified politically between the Ottoman and Safavid empires (Battle of Chaldiran), and Sikhism emerged in South Asia blending Hindu and Muslim ideas (Guru Nanak). Akbar’s religious tolerance at the Mughal court was a change in policy compared with later rulers like Aurangzeb. Continuities: devotional practices and popular movements persisted—Bhakti and Sufism kept local, emotional forms of Hinduism and Islam alive across regions. Religion still legitimized rulers and justified state authority. Religious conflict also continued (Thirty Years’ War), but so did syncretism and missionary diffusion. These fit AP LO C (explain continuity/change). For a focused review see the Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Did the Catholic Reformation happen because of the Protestant Reformation or separately?
Short answer: the Catholic Reformation (often called the Counter-Reformation) happened largely because of the Protestant Reformation, though it also built on internal reform efforts that were already happening. Why: Protestant critiques (Luther, Calvin, Henry VIII) exposed abuses, doctrinal splits, and loss of believers—so the Catholic leadership responded to stop further loss and reform the church from within. Key responses included the Council of Trent (clarified doctrine and reformed practices), the rise of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) focused on education and missionary work, and reforms in seminaries and discipline. Those actions both resisted Protestant ideas and revitalized Catholicism, contributing to Christianity’s growth in new places. For AP World, this fits Topic 3.3 (belief systems)—know the Council of Trent, Jesuits, and how Protestant/Catholic reformations changed Christianity and politics (useful for SAQs/LEQs). Review the Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
How did empire politics affect religious beliefs during this time?
Empire politics shaped belief systems by promoting, restricting, or reshaping religions to secure legitimacy and social control. Rulers sponsored religions (Ottomans used Sunni Islam; Safavids enforced Shi'a after the Battle of Chaldiran), intensifying Sunni–Shi'a splits. European rulers used the Protestant and English Reformations to assert state authority (Henry VIII) while the Catholic Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits) expanded Catholic influence and education. In South Asia, Mughal policy under Akbar encouraged syncretism and accommodation (Sikhism and Bhakti/Sufi interactions), while other rulers restricted conversion or missionary work to limit foreign influence. These political choices caused both continuity (religious institutions staying central to legitimacy) and change (new sects, state churches, or banned faiths). For AP tasks, you should be ready to explain continuity/change and causation in SAQs or DBQs—use examples like Martin Luther, the Jesuits, Akbar, and the Ottoman–Safavid rivalry. For a quick review see the Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What were the long-term effects of these religious changes on empires?
Long-term effects of the religious changes (1450–1750): - Christianity fragmented: Protestantism created lasting denominational diversity; Catholic Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits) revitalized Catholicism and sharpened confessional identities, fueling conflicts like the Thirty Years’ War and shaping state—church relations. - State control of religion grew: rulers used religious reform (English Reformation, Henry VIII) to centralize authority and legitimize rule. - Islam polarized regionally: Ottoman–Safavid rivalry intensified Sunni–Shi'a divisions (e.g., Battle of Chaldiran) with lasting political/religious borders. - New and syncretic traditions emerged: Sikhism developed amid Hindu–Islam interaction; Bhakti and Sufi movements promoted devotional, sometimes syncretic, practices. - Religion and empire policy: rulers varied—some (Akbar) promoted tolerance to stabilize empires; others restricted missionary activity, affecting cultural exchange and social tensions (Huguenot migrations, persecution). On the AP exam use these as CCOT and causation evidence in DBQs/LEQs. For review, see the Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Compare how Christianity changed versus how Islam changed during 1450-1750
Christianity saw major institutional fragmentation and global expansion between 1450–1750: the Protestant Reformation (Martin Luther, John Calvin, Henry VIII) broke from Catholic traditions, triggering the Catholic Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits) and wars like the Thirty Years’ War—but Christianity also grew through missionary activity in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Islam changed differently: political rivalries (Ottoman vs. Safavid) intensified the Sunni–Shi'a split (e.g., after the Battle of Chaldiran), and empires shaped religious identity more than doctrinal schisms; Islam also spread via trade, Sufism, and local conversions, while syncretic movements (and new faiths like Sikhism in South Asia) arose from Hindu–Muslim interaction. Continuities: both religions retained core beliefs and local practices even as institutions and geopolitics shifted. For AP essays, use comparison and CCOT reasoning, cite specific figures/events, and link causes/effects (see the Topic 3.3 study guide for notes) (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm). For practice, try problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
I missed class - what are the most important belief system changes I need to know for the test?
Focus on major changes and why they matter for CCOT questions: the Protestant Reformation broke Western Christian unity—Martin Luther and John Calvin challenged Catholic doctrine and practice; Henry VIII created the English Reformation for political control. The Catholic Counter-Reformation (Council of Trent, Jesuits) reformed Catholicism and boosted missionary work. In Islam, political rivalry between the Ottoman (Sunni) and Safavid (Shi'a) states intensified religious division (Battle of Chaldiran is key). New syncretic or reform movements: Sikhism (Guru Nanak) arose in a Hindu-Muslim contact zone; Mughal ruler Akbar promoted pluralist policies. Grassroots devotional movements (Bhakti, Sufism) kept continuity in popular piety while changing practice. Also know conflicts tied to belief: Thirty Years’ War, Huguenot persecution. These topics show both continuity (religious institutions’ power) and change (sectarian fragmentation, new faiths)—perfect for SAQs/LEQs/DBQs in Unit 3. Review the Topic 3.3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/belief-systems-land-based-empires/study-guide/IL36ammiUEOnBgrV7PTm) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).