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AP World History: Modern
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Table of Contents
Unit 3 Overview: Land-Based Empires
3.1 Expansion of Land-Based Empires
3.2 Governments of Land-Based Empires
3.3 Belief Systems of Land-Based Empires
3.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires

🌍ap world history: modern review

3.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires

Verified for the 2025 AP World History: Modern exam•Citation:

This guide includes comparisons in unit 3 and unit 4 respectively in addition to comparisons between unit 3 and unit 4.

Short but sweet: Unit 3 and 4 focus on the growth of empires both across the Atlantic in the Americas and in Afro-Eurasia, so the major comparison would be in the type or style of government. 

Land Based Empires

Mughal Empire

From the early sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth centuries, the Mughal Empire ruled South Asia. It was founded and ruled by a Muslim dynasty of Chaghatai Turco-Mongol origin, which claimed direct descent from both Timur, the Turco-Mongol conqueror, and Genghis Khan, via his son Chaghatai Khan. The Mughal Empire was characterized by a period of economic, cultural, and architectural prosperity, and it is regarded as one of India's greatest empires. The Mughal Empire ruled over much of the Indian subcontinent at its peak, including modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and parts of Afghanistan. The Mughal emperors were known for their cultural accomplishments and support for the arts, and their rule had a profound and long-lasting impact on the development of the arts.

Ottoman Empire

Between the 14th and early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire ruled over much of southeastern Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. It was founded in the late 13th century by Turkish tribes who converted to Islam in northwestern Anatolia. The Ottoman Empire was at its most powerful in the 16th and 17th centuries, when it ruled over much of southeastern Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. It had a centralized, autocratic government and a diverse population that included Muslims, Christians, and Jews. Following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I and the subsequent occupation of Constantinople (Istanbul) by British and other Allied forces, the empire was eventually dissolved in the early twentieth century.

Safavid Empire

The Safavid Empire was an eastern Islamic state that existed from the early 16th to the mid-18th centuries. It was founded by Ismail I, who declared the Safavid dynasty to be the region's legitimate rulers. The Safavid Empire was centered in modern-day Iran and included parts of Iraq, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey. The Safavids were Twelver Shia Muslims who made Shia Islam the official religion of the empire. Their contributions to Persian art, literature, and culture, as well as their military campaigns against the Ottoman Empire, are well known. The Safavid Empire declined in the late 18th century and was eventually dissolved in the early 19th century.

Songhai Empire

In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Songhai Empire ruled over a large portion of West Africa. It was founded by the Songhai people, a group of people who lived in what is now Niger and Mali. The Songhai Empire was centered in the city of Gao on the Niger River in what is now Mali. The empire was known for its strong military, which allowed it to conquer and expand its territory by conquering a number of neighboring states. It was also known for having an advanced government system that included a well-organized bureaucracy and a highly centralized administration. The Songhai Empire declined in the late 16th century as a result of internal conflicts and Moroccan invasions.

Russian Empire

The Russian Empire lasted from 1721 until the 1917 Russian Revolution. It was the world's largest country by land area, covering more than one-sixth of the planet's land surface, and the third most populous. The Romanov dynasty ruled the Russian Empire, which was distinguished by a strong government and a rigid hierarchy. The tsar wielded absolute power in this autocracy. The Russian Empire was a multiethnic state with over 100 ethnic groups living within its borders. It was a major player in world affairs and one of the great powers of the nineteenth century. Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, which resulted in the establishment of the Soviet Union, the Russian Empire was dissolved.

Qing Empire (China)

The Qing Dynasty was China's final imperial dynasty. It was founded by the Manchu people and ruled from 1644 to 1912. The Qing Empire was distinguished by a centralized government, a social hierarchy, and a bureaucratic rule system. It was also a multicultural state, with Han Chinese, Manchus, Mongols, and other ethnic groups living there. During its reign, the Qing Empire experienced significant economic, social, and cultural development, and it played a significant role in world affairs. It was a major player in the Industrial Revolution and a global power in the 18th and early 19th centuries. Following the Xinhai Revolution, which ended imperial rule in China, the Qing Empire was dissolved in 1912.

Ming Empire (China)

From 1368 to 1644, China was ruled by the Ming dynasty. The Han Chinese established the Ming dynasty after overthrowing the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and establishing a new government in China. The Ming dynasty was well-known for its strong government, cultural achievements, and economic growth. After the tumultuous years of the Mongol invasion and the subsequent Yuan dynasty, it was also a time of relative peace and prosperity in China. The Ming dynasty saw the completion of the Great Wall of China and the construction of the Forbidden City in Beijing, as well as the development of a thriving economy based on agriculture, trade, and manufacturing. The Ming dynasty ended in 1644, when it was deposed by the Qing dynasty.

Incan Empire

The Incan Empire, also known as the Inca Empire, was a South American empire that was located in the Andes Mountains. It was the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas and was centered in what is now Peru. The Incan Empire was founded in the early 13th century and reached its height of power in the 15th century, when it controlled a large territory that included much of the western Andes and parts of present-day Ecuador, Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina. The Incan Empire was known for its advanced system of government, which included a well-organized bureaucracy and a strong centralized administration. It was also known for its impressive architectural achievements, such as the construction of roads, aqueducts, and terraced agriculture. The Incan Empire was conquered by the Spanish in the early 16th century, and it was eventually absorbed into the Spanish Empire.

Mexica (Aztec Empire)

The Mexica were a Native American civilization that existed from the 14th to the 16th centuries in central Mexico. They established the Aztec Empire, a vast empire that ruled over much of central and southern Mexico. The Aztec Empire was known for its sophisticated government system, which included an organized bureaucracy and a strong centralized administration. It was also renowned for its architectural and artistic accomplishments, as well as its military prowess. The Aztecs followed a religion based on the worship of a pantheon of gods, and they were known for their elaborate ceremonies and human sacrifices. The Spanish conquered the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century, bringing an end to the Aztec Empire.

Tokugawa Japan

From 1603 to 1868, Japan was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate. The Tokugawa shogunate, a feudal government led by the Tokugawa family, ruled during this period of political stability and economic growth. To maintain control, the Tokugawa shogunate established a strong, centralized government and implemented a number of measures. These measures included Japan's isolation and strict trade regulations. The Tokugawa period was also a time of cultural and artistic flourishing, with the emergence of several distinct artistic styles and the rise of a wealthy, urban merchant class. Following the Meiji Restoration, which ended feudal rule in Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate was deposed in 1868.

Maritime Empires

British Empire

From the 16th to the early 20th centuries, the British Empire was centered in the British Isles. The British Empire was the largest empire in history, with territories on every continent. It was distinguished by a global trade network and a system of colonies and dependencies. The British Empire was a major player in world affairs, helping to shape the modern world. In the twentieth century, the British Empire began to decline.

Spanish Empire

The Spanish Empire was a global empire centered in Spain that ruled over a large portion of the world from the 15th to the early 19th centuries. The Spanish Empire was one of the most powerful empires in history, with territories in Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia at its peak. The Spanish Empire was distinguished by a powerful centralized government and a vast network of trade and colonization. In the 18th century, the Spanish Empire began to decline.

Portuguese Empire

From the 15th to the early 20th centuries, the Portuguese Empire ruled over a significant portion of the world. The Portuguese Empire was one of the largest and most powerful empires in history, with territories in Africa, Asia, and the Americas at its peak. The Portuguese Empire was distinguished by a strong centralized government and a global trade and colonization network. The Portuguese Empire declined in the nineteenth century.

French Empire

From the 16th to the early 20th centuries, the French Empire was centered in France and ruled over the majority of the world. The French Empire was one of the largest and most powerful empires in history, with territories in Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia at its peak. The French Empire was distinguished by a powerful centralized government and a vast network of trade and colonization. The French Empire declined in the nineteenth century.

Dutch Empire

The Dutch Empire was a global empire that was centered in the Netherlands and that controlled a significant portion of the world from the 16th to the early 20th century. At its height, the Dutch Empire included territories in Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia, and it was one of the largest and most powerful empires in history. The Dutch Empire was characterized by a strong centralized government and a global network of trade and colonization. The Dutch Empire began to decline in the 19th century.

Difference Between Land-Based and Maritime Empires

A major difference between these two types of empires is that the empires on the left were predominantly land based, meaning most of their power and wealth came from the land, rich agriculture, and profitable trade routes. Those on the right are predominantly maritime based empires, meaning that their power and wealth come from trade overseas, colonies overseas, or controlling overseas trade routes. 

Administrative Systems

Based on Religious Justification ✝️Based on Military Elites 🎖
Divine Right of Kings (French Empire), Mandate of Heaven (China), Songhai Islam (Songhai)Devshirme System (Ottoman Empire), Samurai Warriors (Japan)

How governments maintain legitimacy varies across empires, but the chart above illustrates two general ways that empires claimed the right to rule. Military elites refer to a system of warriors who are loyal to the ruler or the state which helps them maintain power. On the other hand, some states relied more on religious justification for their power, claiming direct connection to the divine as the right to rule. It should be understood that these two often mixed.  

Social Hierarchies

Social Hierarchy based on Race/Culture 🎎Social Hierarchy based on Religion ☪️
Qing Dynasty (Restrictive Policy on Han Chinese), Spanish Empire (The Casta System)The Ottoman Empire (The Millet System), The Mughal Empire (Zamindar/Rajput System)

Organizing a society is essential to maintaining stability within an Empire. A hierarchy determined one's job, what legal rights they had and proximity to power. These hierarchies can be based on physical characteristics, probably the most famous being the Casta System, which was based on perceptions of blood purity. Or they can be based on religion as in many of the Islamic empires; the Millet System gave each religion its own political zone. Although the Islamic zones were above the others, this did provide some stability as each zone was free to practice their own religion. 

Maritime Empires

Trading Post Empires ⛵Colonial Empires 📍
The Portugese in Africa/India, The Dutch in Southeast AsiaThe French in North America, The British in North America, The Spanish in North and South America

For those empires that expanded overseas, there were two major types that corresponded more to the situation of the colonized regions. During this time, Europeans stuck to themselves in trading posts and did not assert authority over land, but did overseas known as Trading Post Empires. Colonial Empires refers to places where Europeans conquered land and sometimes settled their own populations there. Trading Post Empires often confronted established and long standing empires or populations they could not eliminate or geography that was unfavorable to conquest. The opposite was true for Colonial Empires.

 

Key Terms to Review (46)

British Empire: The British Empire was a global empire that at its height controlled vast territories across Africa, Asia, the Americas, and the Pacific, making it one of the largest empires in history. Its expansion was driven by economic interests, territorial ambition, and the spread of British culture and governance, significantly influencing global trade patterns and international relations.
Central Powers: The Central Powers were a coalition of countries during World War I, primarily consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria. This alliance opposed the Allied Powers and was marked by their military strategies and alliances, which shaped the course of the war and its eventual outcomes.
Chaghatai Turco-Mongol: The Chaghatai Turco-Mongol refers to the cultural and political legacy of the Chaghatai Khanate, one of the four main divisions of the Mongol Empire established in Central Asia. This entity played a crucial role in the development of a unique blend of Turkic and Mongolic cultures, influencing the socio-political landscape of the region and its interactions with neighboring empires.
Chaghatai Khan: Chaghatai Khan was the second son of Genghis Khan and the founder of the Chaghatai Khanate, which was part of the larger Mongol Empire. He played a crucial role in the administration of Central Asia and contributed to the spread of Mongolian culture, trade, and governance in the region.
Colonial Empires: Colonial empires are nations or states that establish control over foreign territories, often exploiting resources and populations for economic gain. This control can take various forms, such as direct governance, economic dominance, or cultural influence, and has been a key driver of global interactions throughout history.
Constantinople (Istanbul): Constantinople, now known as Istanbul, was the capital city of the Byzantine Empire and later the Ottoman Empire. Strategically located between Europe and Asia, it was a vital hub for trade, culture, and military power, influencing the development of land-based empires throughout history.
Devshirme System: The Devshirme System was an Ottoman practice where Christian boys from the empire's territories were recruited, converted to Islam, and trained to serve in various roles within the state, particularly as Janissaries or in administrative positions. This system allowed the Ottomans to build a loyal and skilled bureaucratic and military class, while also reinforcing their control over conquered regions and integrating diverse populations into the empire.
Divine Right of Kings: The Divine Right of Kings is a political and religious doctrine that asserts that a monarch's authority comes directly from God, and that they are accountable only to God for their actions. This belief system legitimizes the absolute power of kings and reinforces their role as God's appointed rulers on Earth, influencing governance in various empires and states throughout history.
Dutch Empire: The Dutch Empire was a global maritime empire established by the Netherlands from the late 16th century through the 18th century, known for its dominance in trade, exploration, and colonial ventures. This empire was characterized by its extensive network of trade routes, territorial holdings in Asia, Africa, and the Americas, and a strong naval presence that allowed it to compete with other European powers.
Forbidden City: The Forbidden City is a historic palace complex located in Beijing, China, that served as the imperial palace for the Ming and Qing dynasties from the 15th century until the early 20th century. It symbolizes the power and authority of Chinese emperors and represents the political heart of land-based empires during this era, showcasing their cultural, architectural, and bureaucratic achievements.
French Empire: The French Empire refers to the colonial and imperial pursuits of France from the 17th century through the early 20th century, characterized by its significant expansion in Africa, Asia, and the Americas. This empire played a vital role in the global competition for territory and resources, influencing political and cultural landscapes across continents.
Genghis Khan: Genghis Khan was the founder and first Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, uniting the Mongolian tribes in the early 13th century and establishing one of the largest empires in history. His leadership transformed the Mongol tribes into a formidable military power that conquered vast territories across Asia and into Europe, significantly impacting global trade and cultural exchange.
Great Wall of China: The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications built to protect Chinese states and empires from invasions and raids by nomadic groups from the north. Spanning thousands of miles, it serves not only as a military defense structure but also as a symbol of Chinese strength and perseverance in the context of land-based empires.
Han Chinese: The Han Chinese are the largest ethnic group in China, making up over 90% of the population. This group has a rich cultural heritage and a significant historical presence, especially during the Han Dynasty, which lasted from 206 BCE to 220 CE and is often considered a golden age in Chinese history. Their influence extends across various aspects of society, including language, philosophy, and governance, impacting the formation and development of land-based empires throughout East Asia.
Incan Empire: The Incan Empire was a vast and powerful civilization that flourished in the Andes region of South America from the early 15th century until the Spanish conquest in the 16th century. Known for its advanced agricultural practices, impressive architectural achievements, and centralized political structure, the Incan Empire significantly impacted the history of the Americas and showcased the complexity of land-based empires during its time.
Ismail I: Ismail I was the founder of the Safavid dynasty in Persia, establishing a significant Shi'a Islamic state in the early 16th century. His reign marked the beginning of the Safavid Empire, which played a crucial role in shaping Persian identity and religious structure in the region, especially through the promotion of Twelver Shi'ism as the state religion.
Mandate of Heaven: The Mandate of Heaven is a Chinese philosophical and political concept that asserts that a ruler's authority is granted by divine approval, contingent upon their ability to govern wisely and justly. This idea connects the legitimacy of a ruler to their moral conduct and the welfare of the people, providing a framework for both the rise and fall of dynasties in Chinese history.
Manchu people: The Manchu people are an ethnic group originally from Northeast China, known for establishing the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China from 1644 to 1912. Their rise to power marked a significant transition in Chinese history as they expanded the empire and integrated diverse cultures, impacting land-based empires and their comparisons.
Meiji Restoration: The Meiji Restoration was a pivotal event in Japan during the late 19th century that marked the end of feudal rule and the beginning of modernization and industrialization under Emperor Meiji. This transformation led to significant changes in Japan's political, economic, and social structures, establishing it as a major world power.
Mexica (Aztec Empire): The Mexica, commonly known as the Aztec Empire, was a Mesoamerican civilization that flourished in central Mexico from the 14th to the 16th century. This powerful empire is known for its advanced agricultural practices, impressive architectural achievements, and a complex social structure, as well as its role in the regional trade networks of the time.
Ming Empire (China): The Ming Empire was a Chinese dynasty that ruled from 1368 to 1644, marking a period of stability, cultural flourishing, and significant economic expansion. It is known for its centralized bureaucratic governance, exploration, and contributions to art and culture, establishing a strong national identity in contrast to earlier Mongol rule.
Mughal Empire: The Mughal Empire was a prominent Islamic empire in South Asia that lasted from the early 16th to the late 19th century, known for its cultural achievements and significant territorial expansion. The empire reached its zenith under rulers like Akbar, who is celebrated for his administrative innovations and policies promoting religious tolerance.
Mughal Zamindar/Rajput System: The Mughal Zamindar/Rajput System refers to the administrative and social structure within the Mughal Empire, where zamindars acted as land revenue collectors and local landlords, while the Rajputs were a prominent warrior class that played a significant role in the empire's military and political landscape. This system enabled the Mughal emperors to maintain control over vast territories by integrating local elites into their governance while balancing power dynamics among different groups.
Ottoman Millet System: The Ottoman Millet System was an administrative framework used by the Ottoman Empire that granted various religious communities a certain level of autonomy to manage their own affairs. This system allowed for the coexistence of diverse religious groups, including Christians and Jews, by permitting them to govern their internal matters such as education, law, and religious practices while still being subjects of the empire. It played a crucial role in maintaining stability within the multi-ethnic empire by allowing these communities to retain their identities and traditions.
Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire was a vast and influential Islamic state that existed from the late 13th century until the early 20th century, encompassing parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It played a crucial role in shaping political, cultural, and economic landscapes across these regions, particularly as it navigated challenges related to modernization, nationalism, and imperialism.
Portuguese Empire: The Portuguese Empire was one of the first global empires, established in the late 15th century and lasting until the early 20th century, primarily known for its maritime exploration, trade routes, and colonial territories in Africa, Asia, and South America. This empire played a significant role in shaping global trade networks and interactions between continents.
Qing Empire (China): The Qing Empire, also known as the Manchu Dynasty, was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912. This period marked significant territorial expansion and cultural integration, as well as complex interactions with foreign powers. The Qing Empire is essential for understanding comparisons in land-based empires, especially regarding governance, military strategies, and economic systems.
Qing Dynasty: The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912, and was established by the Manchu people after they overthrew the Ming Dynasty. This period is marked by significant territorial expansion, cultural exchanges, and conflicts with Western powers, influencing China's response to modernization and industrialization.
Romanov Dynasty: The Romanov Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty to rule Russia, reigning from 1613 until the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II in 1917 during the Russian Revolution. This dynasty is significant for its expansion of Russian territory, the centralization of power, and its connection to various belief systems that influenced both governance and culture throughout its rule.
Russian Revolution: The Russian Revolution refers to a series of political upheavals in Russia during 1917, which led to the overthrow of the Tsarist autocracy and the rise of the Soviet regime. This revolution was pivotal in reshaping the global political landscape, as it not only ended centuries of imperial rule but also sparked a wave of revolutionary movements across the world.
Safavid Empire: The Safavid Empire was a significant Persian state that existed from 1501 to 1736, renowned for establishing Twelver Shi'ism as the state religion and marking the height of Persian culture and influence. This empire played a crucial role in the expansion of land-based empires, fostering cultural developments and political stability through its governance.
Russian Empire: The Russian Empire was a vast and influential state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution in 1917, covering Eastern Europe, Northern Asia, and parts of North America. It was marked by extensive territorial expansion and a centralized autocratic government, reflecting both the ambitions and challenges of one of history's largest empires.
Samurai Warriors: Samurai warriors were the elite military class of feudal Japan, known for their code of honor, bushido, and skilled combat abilities. They played a crucial role in the political and social landscape of Japan, serving as loyal retainers to feudal lords while upholding a strict moral code that emphasized loyalty, bravery, and honor. The samurai's influence extended beyond the battlefield, impacting Japanese culture, arts, and governance.
Songhai Islam: Songhai Islam refers to the Islamic beliefs and practices that were prevalent in the Songhai Empire, which thrived in West Africa from the 15th to the 16th centuries. This form of Islam played a crucial role in shaping the political, cultural, and economic landscape of the empire, highlighting the integration of Islamic scholarship and trade with traditional African customs.
Songhai Empire: The Songhai Empire was a powerful West African state that flourished from the 15th to the late 16th century, known for its wealth, trade, and cultural achievements. It emerged as a dominant force in the region following the decline of the Mali Empire and played a crucial role in the trans-Saharan trade routes, connecting West Africa to North Africa and beyond.
Soviet Union: The Soviet Union, officially known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), was a socialist state that existed from 1922 to 1991, encompassing a vast territory across Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It played a central role in global politics, particularly during the 20th century, influencing ideological conflicts and shaping world events during and after the World Wars.
Spanish Empire: The Spanish Empire was one of the first global empires, spanning from the late 15th century to the early 19th century. It played a pivotal role in the establishment of maritime trade networks and colonial territories across the Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia. Its vast reach allowed for significant cultural exchanges, economic exploitation, and migrations that shaped world history during its height.
Spanish Casta System: The Spanish Casta System was a hierarchical social structure established in colonial Latin America, categorizing individuals based on their racial ancestry and social status. This system played a crucial role in organizing society in the Spanish colonies, influencing social interactions, economic opportunities, and legal rights among different racial groups.
Timur: Timur, also known as Tamerlane, was a Central Asian conqueror who rose to power in the late 14th century and established the Timurid Empire. His conquests significantly impacted the political landscape of Persia, Central Asia, and parts of India, showcasing both military prowess and a complex administrative structure that influenced later empires.
Tokugawa Japan: Tokugawa Japan refers to the period from 1603 to 1868, characterized by the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate, a feudal regime that unified Japan under a centralized military government. This era is marked by political stability, economic growth, and a strict social hierarchy, alongside a policy of isolationism that significantly influenced Japan's cultural and economic development in comparison to other land-based empires.
Tokugawa Shogunate: The Tokugawa Shogunate was the last feudal Japanese military government that existed from 1603 to 1868, led by the Tokugawa clan. This period marked a time of relative peace and stability in Japan, known as the Edo period, where strict social orders and isolationist policies were implemented.
Trading Post Empires: Trading Post Empires were maritime empires established primarily for commercial purposes, where European powers built fortified trading posts to control trade routes and access valuable goods. These empires focused on establishing a network of coastal settlements and outposts, rather than vast territorial conquests, allowing them to dominate trade in specific regions like Asia, Africa, and the Americas.
Twelver Shia Muslims: Twelver Shia Muslims are a sect of Shia Islam that believes in a line of twelve Imams as the rightful spiritual and political successors to the Prophet Muhammad. This belief shapes their religious practices, cultural identity, and plays a significant role in the political dynamics within various land-based empires, particularly during the Safavid Empire in Persia.
World War I: World War I was a global conflict that lasted from 1914 to 1918, primarily involving the Allies and the Central Powers. It marked a significant shift in global power dynamics, leading to massive military engagements and profound social, political, and economic changes around the world.
Yuan Dynasty: The Yuan Dynasty was a ruling dynasty established by Kublai Khan, marking the first time that the entire territory of China was governed by a foreign power, specifically the Mongols, from 1271 to 1368. This dynasty significantly influenced the social, political, and economic structures of China and established connections with the broader world.
Xinhai Revolution: The Xinhai Revolution was a significant uprising in 1911 that led to the fall of the Qing Dynasty in China and the establishment of the Republic of China. This revolution marked the end of over two thousand years of imperial rule and reflected broader trends in land-based empires, as it demonstrated how internal strife, revolutionary fervor, and the influence of Western ideas contributed to the transformation of political systems.
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