Formation of Land Based Empires
What Are Land-Based Empires?
A land-based empire is an empire that is primarily based on the control and administration of land and territory. This type of empire often expands through military conquests, as it seeks to gain control over new territories and resources. Land-based empires can be found throughout history and have varied in size, power, and influence. Some examples of land-based empires include the Roman Empire, the Mongol Empire, the British Empire, and the Russian Empire.
Land-based empires are often characterized by a centralized system of government, with a strong ruler or ruling body at the top and a hierarchy of officials and administrators responsible for managing the various territories and populations within the empire. These empires also often have a strong military presence, both to defend the empire's territory and to expand its borders. Land-based empires are also often marked by cultural exchange and mixing, as the various territories and peoples within the empire come into contact with one another and exchange ideas, technologies, and cultural practices.
How Do They Expand?
Land-based empires often expand through military conquests, as they seek to gain control over new territories and resources. This can be accomplished through the use of force, as well as through diplomacy and trade. Some empires may also expand through colonization, by establishing colonies or settlements in new territories and establishing their control over them.
Empires may expand for a variety of reasons, including economic, strategic, and ideological motivations. For example, an empire may seek to expand in order to gain access to valuable resources, such as minerals, land, or labor, or to secure trade routes and markets. An empire may also expand in order to protect its own interests and defend against potential threats from other powers. Ideological factors, such as a belief in the superiority of one's own culture or a desire to spread a particular ideology or religion, may also play a role in the expansion of an empire.
The expansion of land-based empires often has significant consequences for the peoples and cultures of the territories that are conquered or colonized. The arrival of a new power may bring significant changes to the social, political, and economic systems of these territories, as well as to their cultural practices and traditions. The expansion of an empire can also lead to conflict and resistance from those who are opposed to the empire's rule.
In short, these empires formed like any other: through a conquest of economically or strategically important areas. But in particular, there are a few unique ways these empires were forged.
🎥Watch: WHAP - Land Based Empires
Guns
Many of these empires are also known in AP World, and in many textbooks used in AP World, as “Gunpowder Empires” because they were some of the first to employ gunpowder armies en masse, several hundred years before Europe.
Gunpowder Empires
The "Gunpowder Empires" were a group of three empires that emerged in the late medieval and early modern periods and are known for their use of gunpowder weapons and their cultural and technological achievements. These empires include:
- The Ottoman Empire: A Muslim empire that ruled over a large territory that included parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa from the late 13th to the early 20th century. It was known for its use of artillery and its sophisticated system of government and administration.
- The Safavid Empire: A Persian empire that ruled over parts of modern-day Iran and Iraq from the early 16th to the mid-18th century. It was known for its use of artillery and its cultural achievements, including the development of a distinct Safavid style of art and architecture.
- The Mughal Empire: A Muslim dynasty that ruled over a large territory that included parts of modern-day India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh from the early 16th to the mid-19th century. It was known for its use of artillery and its cultural achievements, including the construction of the Taj Mahal and the development of a distinct Mughal style of art and architecture.
In the early days of gunpowder weaponry, it was a highly technical craft: an empire needed a large, skilled population to cast the metal parts for weapons as well as a resource pool to manufacture gunpowder. Training soldiers in gunpowder weaponry also took time and money, money only a large empire possessed. But even smaller states like the Tokugawa Shogunate owed their success to the carefully trained use of gunpowder weapons.
Tokugawa Shogunate
The Tokugawa Shogunate, also known as the Edo period, was a period in Japanese history that lasted from 1603 to 1868. It was a time of relative peace and stability, marked by the centralization of power under the Tokugawa Shogunate, a hereditary military dictatorship that ruled Japan during this time. The shogunate was established by Tokugawa Ieyasu, who emerged as the dominant power in Japan after the end of the Sengoku period and was appointed shogun by the emperor.
The Tokugawa Shogunate implemented a number of policies that had a lasting impact on Japan, including the sakoku policy, which isolated Japan from the rest of the world and restricted foreign trade and contact. The shogunate also established a system of feudalism, in which the daimyo, or regional lords, were required to spend every other year in the capital, Edo (present-day Tokyo). This helped to further consolidate the shogunate's power and maintain stability throughout the country.
During the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japan underwent significant economic and cultural development. The economy became more centralized and industrialized, and the arts, including literature, theater, and the tea ceremony, flourished. The shogunate also established a system of legal codes and administered justice through a network of local officials and courts. The Tokugawa Shogunate ended in 1868, when the Meiji Restoration restored power to the emperor and ended the shogunate's rule.
The first gunpowder weapons were used by the Song Dynasty in China, but the Islamic Empires (Ottomans, Mughals, and Safavids) and Qing China were the first to utilize them to a greater extent. The capture of Constantinople by the Ottomans and the conquest of Central Asia by the Qing in the late 1600s both owed their success to gunpowder weapons. Later, after 1800, industrial manufacturing would give Europe a decisive edge in this regard.
Trade and Tax Diplomacy
Another feature that helped a number of these empires rise to prominence was their friendly attitude toward merchants and the reduction of existing taxes. The Ottomans and Mughals in particular are known for this. The Mughals, in the early days of their empire, abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims (the majority of the population) and the Ottomans also had notably lower taxes than some of the empires they conquered, such as the Byzantines.
Jizya Tax
Jizya is a tax that was imposed on non-Muslim subjects of Muslim states in the past. In some cases, the payment of jizya was seen as a mark of the subject's submission to Muslim rule and protection against military aggression. In other cases, it was seen as a way to ensure that non-Muslim subjects received the same level of protection as Muslims, while also acknowledging the fact that they were not required to participate in the defense of the state.
Jizya was typically imposed on adult males of a certain age who were able to pay it and who were not otherwise exempt, such as monks, the poor, and the disabled. The amount of jizya that was paid varied depending on the individual's wealth and social status. In some cases, jizya was seen as a burden on non-Muslim subjects and was resented, while in other cases it was seen as a fair and necessary contribution to the state.
Jizya is no longer widely practiced in the modern world, but it was an important part of the legal and social systems of many Muslim states in the past.
Conquering Other Empires
Many of the empires in this study guide toppled existing empires that had weakened over time. Sometimes these were established empires such as the Byzantines, toppled by the Ottomans, or Mali, which was subjugated by Songhai. Other times these were the descendants of nomadic conquerors, such as the Timurid Empire in Persia, conquered by the Safavids, or the Yuan Dynasty in China, overthrown by the future leaders of the Ming Dynasty.
Why empires weaken and fall is complex and unique to each empire. Nomadic empires often weakened after their initial conquest because of their limited experience governing settled landed states or because they adapted so much to local customs and lost their fighting edge and distinctive identity. Also, with the rise of gunpowder weapons, nomads in particular lost their edge when horses were no longer the most important weapon on the battlefield.
🎥Watch: WHAP - Expanding Empires in the Early Modern World
Vocabulary
The following words are mentioned explicitly in the College Board Course and Exam Description for this topic.
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| armed trade | Commercial activity backed by military force, used by empires to establish economic dominance and territorial control. |
| cannons | Large artillery weapons that fired projectiles and were essential military tools for land-based empires to establish and maintain control. |
| gunpowder | An explosive mixture used in firearms and cannons that became a crucial military technology for imperial expansion. |
| land-based empires | Empires that expanded and maintained control through territorial conquest and direct governance of contiguous lands, such as the Ottoman, Russian, and Qing empires. |
| Manchu | A land-based empire that expanded in Central and East Asia during the period 1450-1750. |
| Mughal | A land-based empire that expanded in South and Central Asia during the period 1450-1750. |
| Ottoman Empire | A major Islamic empire that ruled from the 14th to early 20th century and was predominantly Sunni Muslim. |
| Safavid Empire | A Persian Islamic empire that ruled from the 16th to 18th century and was predominantly Shi'a Muslim. |
| Safavid-Mughal conflict | A rivalry between the Safavid and Mughal empires in the Middle East and South Asia that resulted from political and religious disputes. |
| Songhai Empire | A major West African empire that dominated the region from the 15th to 16th centuries, known for its control of trans-Saharan trade routes. |
| state rivalries | Competitive conflicts between empires and states over territory, resources, and political influence. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What were the main land-based empires from 1450 to 1750?
Main land-based empires, c.1450–1750 (what the CED focuses on): - Ottoman Empire (Southeast Europe, Middle East, N. Africa)—“Gunpowder Empire,” used cannons, Janissaries; think Suleiman the Magnificent. - Safavid Empire (Persia)—Shi’a state, rival to Ottomans (Battle of Chaldiran). - Mughal Empire (South/Central Asia)—centralized rule under rulers like Akbar; blended Persian administration and local elites. - Manchu → Qing dynasty (East/Central Asia)—Manchu military expansion and conquest of Ming China. - Songhai Empire and Saadi Morocco in West Africa—regional land empires; Songhai fell after Moroccan intervention (Battle of Tondibi). Why these matter for AP: Topic 3.1 emphasizes gunpowder, cannons, armed trade, state/religious rivalries, and administrative innovations—all common threads on the exam (Unit 3 weight 12–15%). For a focused review, see the Topic 3.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
How did gunpowder help empires expand during this time period?
Gunpowder technologies (gunpowder, cannons, and handheld firearms) let land-based empires build bigger armies, break city walls, and project power more reliably—so rulers could centralize control and expand territory. Empires labeled “Gunpowder Empires” (Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal, and later the Manchu/Qing) used artillery and trained infantry (e.g., Ottoman Janissaries) to win sieges and outmatch rivals. Firearms also shifted how states raised and disciplined troops, strengthening bureaucracies and taxation systems that funded expansion. In Africa and the Americas, armed trade and European firearms changed regional balances too—Morocco’s firearm-equipped forces overcame Songhai leaders at Tondibi (1591), and Ottoman–Safavid rivalry was shaped by artillery at Chaldiran (1514). For the AP exam, this fits Topic 3.1 Learning Objective A (explain how/why empires expanded using gunpowder and armed trade). Review the Topic 3.1 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history) to drill these examples.
Why did the Ottoman Empire become so powerful and large?
The Ottoman Empire grew so large and powerful because it combined military tech, smart institutions, and flexible rule. From the 1300s–1600s Ottomans used gunpowder weapons and cannons to advance their frontiers (a key CED point about Gunpowder Empires). They built elite infantry like the Janissaries and a strong navy, which let leaders such as Suleiman the Magnificent expand into Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. Ottoman rulers also used pragmatic governance—religious tolerance for “People of the Book,” tax systems, and local elites—to hold diverse populations together. Rivalries with neighboring empires (Safavids, Mughals) pushed military and administrative innovation. For the AP exam focus: explain how tech (cannons, firearms) and institutions (Janissaries, centralized bureaucracy) drove expansion (Learning Objective A). Review Topic 3.1 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What's the difference between the Mughal Empire and the Ottoman Empire?
Short answer: Both were "gunpowder empires" (used firearms and cannons to expand) but differed in geography, religion, and state systems. The Ottoman Empire (Anatolia → Southeast Europe, Middle East, N. Africa) was a Sunni, multiethnic empire famous for the devshirme/Janissary system and strong Ottoman bureaucracy under rulers like Suleiman the Magnificent. It faced rivals such as the Safavids (Battle of Chaldiran). The Mughal Empire (South/Central Asia) was a Muslim dynasty ruling a mostly Hindu population; rulers like Akbar promoted religious tolerance and syncretic policies. The Mughals used the mansabdari/land-revenue system and relied more on zamindars and local elites than a devshirme. Both built monumental architecture and centralized courts, but their religious policies, recruitment/administration methods, and regional economic ties differed. Useful for AP comparison questions (LEQ/SAQ)—review Topic 3.1 in the Fiveable study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and practice related questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Can someone explain how the Manchu conquered China in simple terms?
Short version: the Manchu were a semi-nomadic people from northeast Asia who established the Qing dynasty by taking advantage of Ming weakness and then winning support from key Chinese elites. How it happened, simply: - Ming rule was weakening (corruption, taxes, peasant unrest like Li Zicheng’s rebellion), so central control collapsed. - In 1644 a Ming general, Wu Sangui, allowed Manchu forces through the Great Wall’s Shanhai Pass to help stop rebels; the Manchu then took Beijing and positioned themselves as restorers of order. - The Manchu used the Eight Banner military-social system and disciplined forces to hold territory, but they also co-opted Han officials: they kept the civil service exam system, adopted Confucian rituals, and recruited Han elites into administration. - Over decades they expanded and stabilized rule across China, creating the Qing dynasty (a key example in Topic 3.1 of land-based empires’ expansion). For AP prep, be ready to explain both military/organizational tools (Banner system) and political strategies (co-optation of elites). See the Topic 3.1 study guide for a concise review (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Why were the Safavids and Mughals always fighting each other?
They weren’t endlessly at odds, but they clashed repeatedly because of three clear reasons tied to Topic 3.1. First, territorial control: both empires wanted key frontier regions (Kabul, Kandahar, Khorasan/Afghanistan) that were strategic for trade and military movement. Second, religious and political rivalry: the Safavids promoted Twelver Shiʿism while the Mughals ruled a mostly Sunni elite—religious differences fed distrust and rivalry even when Mughal rulers (like Akbar) practiced tolerance. Third, the era’s “gunpowder empires” dynamics—improved artillery, cavalry, and armed trade—made expanding and defending border zones more feasible and competitive. These conflicts are a classic CED example of state rivalries (Safavid–Mughal) you should know for Unit 3. For a focused review, check the Topic 3.1 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history) to drill examples and exam-style prompts.
I'm confused about how cannons and armed trade helped create empires - can someone break this down?
Short answer: cannons = bigger states could take and hold fortified cities and control frontiers. Gunpowder artillery (Ottoman and Mughal arsenals, Janissary infantry supported by cannon) made sieges and large-scale frontal defenses less effective, so rulers who invested in artillery systems could expand territory and centralize power. Armed trade = European chartered companies (Dutch, British) used ships with heavy guns and hired soldiers to protect trading posts, enforce monopolies, and intervene in local politics. That let relatively small merchant groups project state-like power, secure ports, and create footholds that turned into political influence or territorial control. Together, gunpowder tech + armed trade reshaped empire-building (this is exactly what CED Learning Objective A covers). For more examples and AP-style practice, review Topic 3.1 on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What caused all these political and religious disputes between empires?
Mostly, disputes came from competing claims to land, authority, and religious identity as empires grew. Expansion driven by gunpowder, cannons, and armed trade let the Ottomans, Safavids, Mughals, Manchu/Qing and others push into the same regions, so borders and resources overlapped. Religious differences (Sunni Ottomans vs. Shia Safavids) turned political rivalry into ideological rivalry (see Battle of Chaldiran). Rulers also used religion to legitimize rule or centralize power, which threatened neighboring states or minority groups. Economic competition for trade routes and armed commerce (e.g., Moroccan-Songhai confrontation) added another layer. For the AP exam, use specific examples (Safavid-Mughal, Songhai-Morocco, Battle of Tondibi) and explain causation and continuity/change in short answers and essays. For a quick review, check the Topic 3.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
How do I write a DBQ essay about empire expansion from 1450-1750?
Start with a clear thesis that answers the prompt about empire expansion (who expanded, how, and why) and establish a line of reasoning—e.g., land-based “gunpowder” empires (Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal, Manchu/Qing) expanded using firearms, cannons, and military reforms while rivalry and armed trade shaped outcomes. In your intro add contextualization: increased gunpowder tech, gunpowder armies (Janissaries), and European armed-trade companies (Dutch/British EIC) after 1450. Use at least four documents to support your argument, describe their content, and for two explain POV/purpose/situation (sourcing). Bring in at least one specific fact beyond the docs (Battle of Chaldiran, Akbar’s policies, Battle of Tondibi, Qing consolidation). Show complexity by analyzing causes AND consequences (tech + trade → territorial growth but also rivalries and administrative changes). Conclude by tying evidence back to your thesis. For practice DBQs and targeted review, use the Topic 3.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ), unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3), and lots of practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Did the Songhai Empire actually lose to Morocco because of guns?
Short answer: guns helped, but they weren’t the only reason. At the 1591 Battle of Tondibi Saadi Morocco used arquebuses and some cannons, which disrupted Songhai’s traditional cavalry and infantry tactics and gave the Moroccans a technological edge. But Songhai’s defeat also reflected bigger problems: internal political instability, stretched administration across the Niger River, weaker logistics and fewer firearms overall, and limited Moroccan ability to sustain long-term control afterward. In AP terms, the clash illustrates CED Topic 3.1 themes: the increased use of gunpowder weapons in imperial rivalry and how political weaknesses and rivalries shaped outcomes (see “Songhai Empire’s conflict with Morocco” and Battle of Tondibi). For review, check the Topic 3.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and practice more questions at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What were the long-term effects of these land empires expanding so much?
Big expansions by land-based empires (Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal, Qing/Manchu, Songhai) had several long-term effects. Politically they built stronger centralized states with professional bureaucracies and new military systems based on gunpowder (often called “Gunpowder Empires”), which changed how rulers collected taxes, managed diverse populations, and recruited soldiers (e.g., Janissaries, Mughal mansabdars). Culturally they promoted syncretism and patronage of arts and architecture (think Akbar’s policies, Sinan’s mosques). Economically expansion increased state control over trade routes and revenue but also created fiscal strains that made empires vulnerable to internal unrest and external rivals (Safavid–Ottoman, Safavid–Mughal, Songhai–Morocco). Socially, rulers negotiated religious authority (tolerance vs. restriction) and sometimes hardened élite hierarchies. For AP tasks, you’ll use these points for causation and continuity/change essays (SAQs, LEQs, DBQs). Review Topic 3.1 on Fiveable for examples and practice (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
Why did empires in this time period rely so heavily on military technology?
Because land-based empires (Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal, Songhai, Manchu/Qing) were expanding across big territories and facing rival states, they relied on military technology—especially gunpowder, cannons, and organized infantry—to project power quickly and hold frontiers. Gunpowder arms (e.g., Janissaries in the Ottoman army) let centralized states beat rivals in set engagements (Battle of Chaldiran) and subdue resistant regions (Morocco’s firearms at Tondibi against Songhai). Technology also supported armed trade and coastal control, helping empires secure revenue and supply lines. For the AP exam, link these developments to themes: GOV (state building), TEC (technology/innovation), and specific examples named in the CED. Review Topic 3.1 on Fiveable for focused examples and exam-style connections (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ). For broader unit review and extra practice, see Unit 3 (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
I missed class and don't understand what made these empires different from earlier ones
Short answer: These 1450–1750 land-based empires were different because they used new military tech, state institutions, and global trade in ways earlier empires didn’t. Gunpowder, cannons, and firearms let the Ottomans, Safavids, Mughals, and later the Manchu (Qing) expand and hold large territories; specialized troops like the Ottoman Janissaries helped centralize power. Rulers (Suleiman, Akbar) built stronger bureaucracies and used religious policy to legitimize rule, but also faced intense rivalries (Battle of Chaldiran, Safavid–Mughal tensions). Another key change: armed trade and European chartered companies (Dutch/British East India Companies) linked land empires to global commerce and conflict (Songhai vs. Saadi Morocco shows firearms changing African politics). For the AP exam, focus on causation and comparison (CED LO 3.1 A) and use examples in DBQs/LEQs. Review Topic 3.1 on Fiveable (study guide: https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and practice with problems at (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
How did religious differences lead to conflicts between the Safavid and Ottoman empires?
Religious differences were a core cause of Safavid–Ottoman rivalry. The Safavids made Twelver Shiʿa Islam the state faith in Persia, using it to legitimize Shah authority and to unify diverse peoples. The Ottomans were Sunni and saw Safavid Shiʿism as both a theological challenge and a political threat—especially because Safavid propaganda encouraged Shiʿa communities in Ottoman lands to refuse Ottoman rule. That mix of religious ideology and politics exploded into open conflict at the Battle of Chaldiran (1514), where Ottoman use of firearms and cannons (gunpowder empire technology) checked Safavid expansion. In short: doctrinal differences mattered because rulers used religion to claim loyalty and territory, and that made religious dispute into interstate rivalry—exactly the kind of political + religious conflict Topic 3.1 highlights. Review this in the unit 3 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and practice related questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).
What role did trade play in helping these empires grow and expand?
Trade was central to how land-based empires grew between 1450–1750. Controlling trade routes and ports gave empires steady revenue (taxes, customs, tribute) to fund standing armies, gunpowder weapons, and fortifications—key for the “Gunpowder Empires” like the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal states. Armed trade and state-backed merchants (and later European companies like the Dutch and British East India Companies) let rulers project power into new regions, secure resources, and build bureaucracies. Trade also created urban centers (Istanbul, Surat, Cairo) that supplied manpower and legitimacy, and it sparked rivalries (Safavid–Ottoman, Songhai–Morocco) that shaped borders. For AP essays/SAs, use specific examples (Suleiman, Akbar, VOC/BEIC, Songhai/Tondibi) and connect trade → revenue/technology → imperial expansion. For focused review, see the Topic 3.1 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-world-history/unit-3/expansion-land-based-empires/study-guide/9JJLXvSkF2YFzAM0MdsQ) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-world-history).